A Phenomenological Inquiry of African American

Abstract
The direct link between the student-teacher relationship and student success has been heavily researched in the postsecondary educational setting, especially the student-teacher relationship between African American students and African American instructors. The importance of this relationship is often highlighted when there is underrepresentation in a specific field of study. The rate of African Americans enrolling in mental health counseling (MHC) programs is significantly higher than African Americans enrolling in marriage and family therapy (MFT) programs, despite the rapid popularity of the MFT field. In the past several years, there has been an influx of research on minorities in the MHC field but there is limited research on African Americans in MFT. The purpose of the research study is to bridge the gap and to understand the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. A phenomenological qualitative approach was used; African American MFT students attending COAMFTE accredited programs were interviewed to gain insight into their experiences. Former African American MFT students who graduated from a COAMFTE program after 2016 were also interviewed.

Dedication
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Acknowledgments
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments iv
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Study 1
Need for the Study 7
Purpose of the Study 9
Significance of the Study 11
Research Question 12
Definition of Terms 13
Research Design 14
Assumptions and Limitations 16
Assumptions 16
Limitations 17
Delimitations 18
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 18
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 20
Methods of Searching 20
Theoretical Orientation for the Study 21
Review of the Literature 26
Synthesis of the Research Findings 50
Summary 59
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 61
Purpose of the Study 61
Research Question 67
Research Design 68
Target Population and Sample 69
Population 69
Sample 70
Procedures 71
Participant Selection 71
Protection of Participants 71
Data Collection 71
Data Analysis 71
Instruments 71
The Role of the Researcher 71
Guiding Interview Questions 72
Ethical Considerations 72
Summary 75
CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 76
Introduction: The Study and the Researcher 76
Description of the Sample 76
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis 76
Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis 76
Summary 76
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 77
Summary of the Results 77
Discussion of the Results 77
Conclusions Based on the Results 77
Comparison of Findings with Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature 77
Interpretation of the Findings 77
Limitations 77
Implications for Practice 77
Recommendations for Further Research 77
Conclusion 77
References 78
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK 103
APPENDIX A. Site Permission Letter 105
APPENDIX B. Recruitment Letter 106
APPENDIX C. Demographic Survery…………………………………………………..107

APPENDIX D. Capella’s Waiver of Documentation of Consent………………………..108

APPENDIX E. Informed Consent Document…………………………………………….109

APPENDIX F. Codebook…………………………………………………………………110

List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of Participants 107

Table 2. Summary of Themes 110

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Add figure title [single-spaced if longer than one line], and add the page
number xx

Figure 2. Title xx

Leave one full space between entries. Do not remove the section break that follows this paragraph.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Statistics from the U.S. Department of Education (2016) show that only 14.3% of African American students enroll into postsecondary educational programs. In comparison, there were 64.1% Euro-American students enrolled into postsecondary educational programs. Inequitable educational opportunities for African American students can often lead to feelings of misrepresentation and the feeling of being underrepresented when pursuing degrees in higher education settings (McMurtrie, 2016). The most current statistics reported by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2016) show a miniscule increase in the enrollment of African American students in postsecondary educational programs. Research conducted by Cvencek, D., Fryberg, Covarrubias, & Meltzof (2018) suggest feelings of isolation and exclusion have the potential to negatively impact a student’s overall satisfaction in their respective program. Ultimately, this can lead to a loss of interest in their desired career and competitiveness amongst peers; potentially these students see a decrease in their support system in these often high-stress environments (Chambers, Walpole, & Outlaw, 2016).
While studying African Americans in postsecondary educational settings, it is essential to understand the historical context and barriers often experienced by African Americans as they pursue higher education. Brown v. Board of Education was initially explicitly geared towards primary schools (Gabriel, 2016) but it also opened doors for African Americans to enter postsecondary education. Brown v. Board of Education was a significant ruling in the civil rights movement as African Americans fought for equality and recognition. Prior to the 1954 Supreme Court ruling, African Americans advocated for integration in social spaces and schools (Gabriel, 2016). The Supreme Court ruling ensured that African American students would have equal rights and representation in academics (Gabriel, 2016). Once the court decision was reached, the implications extended beyond primary school; doors to higher institutions were opened to African American students. These institutes of higher education saw an increase in enrollment of African American students post-Brown v. Board of Education. African American students continued to encounter racism and discriminatory practices from school administration as well as other students (Johnson-Feelings, 2018). The disproportionate representation of African American students in higher education has been documented by researchers over the past fifty-years (Brown & Brown, 2017; Johnson-Feelings, 2018). The evidence consistently shows African American students feel less supported in their journey to pursue post-secondary educational degrees. African American faculty are severely underrepresented in postsecondary education, statistics in 1980, show only 4.4% of faculty were African American; in the year, 2000, it increased to 5.1%, the most current data shows the percentage of African American faculty employed in postsecondary institutions is 6% (McMurtie, 2016; NCES, 2017). Extensive research has been conducted that focuses on increasing access to enrollment in postsecondary educational programs for African American students (Iver et al., 2018) but diversifying, and retention remains critical issues that impact these students. There is evidence showing self-efficacy, motivation, mentorship and a reliable support system are all factors that contribute to success in postsecondary settings (Zee, de Jong, & Koomen, 2017).
According to Bandura (1977), self-efficacy looks at an individual’s ability or inability to complete a task. Bandura (1977, 1989) suggested self-efficacy evolved from four areas: verbal persuasion, vicarious experience, physiological states, and performance accomplishments. Students with a high level of self-efficacy have the ability to succeed academically, but also the ability to overcome obstacles such as racial discrimination from their Euro-American instructors and peers (Zee, de Jong, & Koomen, 2017). One of the crucial building blocks of self-efficacy is vicarious experience or vicarious learning (Williams, Thakore, & McGee, 2016). Vicarious learning, in the context of education, can be defined as behaviors and consequences learned by observing the instructor instead of first-hand experiences performed by the student (Williams, Thakore, & McGee, 2016); it can also take place through second-hand information or unseen actions that lead to assumptions (Clark & Newberry, 2019). Research indicates one of the ways African Americans have been successful in post-secondary educational programs is vicarious learning experiences from faculty that share the same or similar ethnic backgrounds, race, or gender (Charleston & Leon, 2016; Williams et al., 2016). It is critical for African American students to have direct contact with faculty they share similarities with. In fields, such as MFT, were African Americans are severely underrepresented, there are no behaviors to be observed. African American MFT students start to wonder if they can truly be successful in a career with limited minority representation.
The student-teacher relationship for African American students in higher education has proved to be a critical component of their success. The number of Euro-American faculty at postsecondary institutions are often double the size of African American faculty (McMurtie, 2016). Cherng and Haplin (2016) researched the perceptions African American students have about their minority and non-minority teachers; it was conducted by using a secondary analysis of the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) longitudinal database. The results show that student perception is key to academic success; minority students felt supported by their minority instructors. Euro-American faculty are often perceived as culturally insensitive and display a lack of understanding of issues of cultural competence (Chernh & Haplin, 2016). Microaggressions and cultural generalizations are some of the common problems reported by minority students. Minority students may be hesitant to approach non-minority staff in fear of rejection and having their concerns trivialized (Chernh & Haplin, 2016). Microaggressions, as defined by Professor Pierce, are, “every day, subtle, stunning, often automatic and nonverbal exchanges which are put downs of blacks by offenders” (Berk, 2017; Pierce, Carew, Pierce-Gonzalez, & Willis, 1978, p. 66). African Americans often experience microaggressions in the workplace and educational environment (Berk, 2017).
Research suggests systemic racism and institutionalized discrimination are embedded in the educational system (Bain, 2018; Becton, Foster, & Chen, 2016). Systemic racism involves the dehumanization of minorities through societal discourse (Gordon, 2016) and the “racialized exploitation and subordination of Americans of color by white Americans” (Feagin & Barnett, 2005, p. 1102). The disproportionality between African Americans and non-African American in education have been embedded in the system early in their educational career. Oftentimes, African American students start primary school with lower levels of phonetic awareness, oral skills, mathematic skills and lesser general knowledge (Joseph, Viesca, & Bianco, 2016). Patton (2016) made a poignant statement, “The revelation of a past in which human beings were stolen and brutally mistreated for the causes of institutional advancement and financial stability demonstrates how higher education’s formation mimicked the formation of the United States” (p. 318).
Extensive research documented by Davis and Livingstone (2017) revealed over fifteen-years of research highlighting the ongoing racial issues experienced by students of color; these experiences often lead to feelings of isolation, mistrust, unworthiness and frustration (Kinsey-Winghtman, 2018; White-Davis, Stein, & Karasz, 2016). The experiences of minority students are laboriously documented in the literature; there is also an expansion in the literature highlighting the experiences of minority professors, specifically those professors teaching in predominantly white programs(Kinsey-Winghtman, 2018).
The student-teacher relationship in higher education often takes on the role of mentor and mentee, especially at the graduate level (Asikainen, Blomster, & Virtanen, 2018). During the last decade researchers have placed emphasis on understanding how impactful the student-teacher relationship is on student achievement outcomes (Asikainen, Blomster, & Virtanen, 2018). A substantial amount of research focuses on the elementary age student (Karpouza & Emvalotis, 2019), given it is most appropriate for these relationships to be closer due to the age of the student. Mentorship is one of the key components to success in postsecondary educational programs; it is directly related to both academic and professional success (Quinlan, 2016). A mentor can be described as a role model and primary part of the student’s support system. African American students have shown preference to mentors and faculty that are African American (Berchini, 2016). They describe feeling inspired; there is also a feeling of empathy, both parties can relate to the struggles often experienced in higher education due to racial disparities (Cherng & Haplin, 2016; Verhulp, Stevens, Thijs, Pels, & Vollebergh, 2019). Relationships between faculty and students have shown to promote more positive educational outcomes. When students face unfamiliar challenges, the mentor-mentee relationship becomes even more important, a mentor can provide encouragement, and help the student with focusing on positive outcomes (Bryson, 2017).
In understanding the importance of the student-teacher and mentor-mentee relationship and its impact on student success, it is essential to look at specialized disciplines of study with very limited research on these types of relationships. One particular field, Marriage and family therapy (MFT), a systemic oriented field of therapy has been one the least researched disciplines in terms of the academic experiences of minority students, especially, African Americans (Harris-McKoy, Guitierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017; Lambert- Shute, Nguyen, Petersson, & Pirasteh, 2019; Prouty, Helmeke, & Fischer, 2016). The field of MFT has been described as a predominately Euro-American field lacking diversity in both students and faculty (O’Brien & Rgazio-DiGillio, 2016). The number of African Americans enrolling in MFT programs has slowly increased over the past ten-years, but according to statistics, Euro-American students and faculty continue to dominate the field (COAMFTE, 2017; O’Brien & Rgazio-DiGillio, 2016). Currently, there are no COAMFTE accredited MFT programs located at historically black colleges and universities (HBCU); African Americans interested in MFT programs are required to enroll in predominantly white schools (PWI). Due to the lack of diversity in faculty and administration, African American students enrolled in MFT programs are likely to be taught by non-African American faculty (Harris-McKoy, Guitierrez, Strachan & Winley, 2017).
The researcher is an African American woman who completed a COAMFTE accredited MFT program; she has first-hand knowledge of being taught by non-African American faculty and some of the negative experiences as a result of being taught by only Euro-American professors. The researcher is also a graduate of a HBCU and can attest to how critical and vital relationships with faculty of color were in successful program completion. Being an African American woman enrolled in a counselor education and supervision (CES) doctoral program some would consider the researcher privileged; it is essential for the researcher to continue to bring awareness to the marginalization and discrimination often experienced by both students and professors of color in the field of marriage and family therapy (Chen, Austin, Hughes, & May, 2019). The primary function of a counselor educator is to provide opportunities for students to learn an array of counseling knowledge and skills while being effective and supportive. The relationship is essential for orchestrating the involvement of the learner in achieving the goals of supervision (Pérez & Carney, 2018). Counselor educators are an integral part of developing students that will promote the counseling field. They assist in maximizing student potential, intellectual, and personal growth, and academic performance (Pérez & Carney, 2018; Lamprecht & Pitre, 2018). One of the primary tenets of the counselor education and supervision is advocacy, not only advocacy for supervisees and their clients, but advocacy for the field (Brown & Grothaus, 2019; Stargell, 2017). Conversations of racism and oppression can be overshadowed by courses in diversity and the often thrown around term cultural competence (Tohidian & Quek, 2017). The negative experiences of African American MFT students can contradict the values of the profession which are clearly outlined in the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) competencies and code of ethics (AAMFT, 2019).
Need for the Study
When African American students experience limited interaction with African American instructors in the postsecondary education setting, they run the risk of reduced motivation, decreased academic performance and lowered student satisfaction (Bryson, 2017; Verhulp, 2019). African American students may potentially experience feelings of inadequacy and isolation due to low representation (Matias & Grosland, 2016; Pham, 2018). The student may have difficulty relating to their instructor, especially surrounding issues of culture, diversity and race. African American students may view their Euro-American instructors as unapproachable and unavailable (Gist, 2017). A common theme in research focusing on the relationships between Euro-American instructors and African American students is teacher expectations. Studies have shown Euro-American instructors hold lower expectations for their African American students based on race (Arguete & Hardy, 2016; Schenke, Nguyen, Watts, Sarama, & Clements, 2017). Euro-American instructors rely on overgeneralized assumptions to support their beliefs (Schenke et al., 2017). Subtle actions such as microaggressions have the ability to impact student achievement and decrease the chances of fostering positive teacher-student relationships (Liou & Rotheram-Fuller, 2019).
It is clear from the research how cultural representation in education can be directly linked to student success (Chernh & Haplin, 2016; Szelei, Tinoca, & Pinho, 2019). The research in the field focuses primarily on the underrepresentation of minority students enrolled in COAMFTE accredited programs (McDowell, Brown, Cullen, & Duyn, 2013). Limited attention has been paid to the lived experiences of African American students enrolled in MFT programs that have limited exposure to African American instructors. The research will add to the literature by exploring the key themes that develop from the data as it relates to the student lived experiences and their desire to succeed in the programs and pursue further opportunities in the MFT field.
Purpose of the Study
The proposed research study seeks to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American marriage and family therapy (MFT) students with limited exposure to African American instructors. The purpose of the phenomenological study also seeks to address the current gap in the MFT field as it relates to understanding the lived experiences of these students and promote social change in a predominately Euro-Euro-American field. The research took an in-depth look at the teacher-student relationship as it relates to student growth and programmatic retention. Research conducted by Quinn (2017) illustrates the impact student-teacher relationship has on retention and academic success, especially in post-secondary education settings. Relationships between faculty and students have shown to promote more positive educational outcomes. When students face unfamiliar challenges, the mentor-mentee relationship becomes even more important; a mentor can provide encouragement and help the student with focusing on positive outcomes (McKoy, Luedke, Winkle-Wagner, 2017; Patton, 2016).
There is a disproportionate number of minority students in MFT programs and minority faculty teaching in these programs. In 2016, the Commission of Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) surveyed 124 accredited Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) programs; the self-reported data showed the following, 57% of master’s level MFT students were Euro-American, and 19% were African American. In doctoral level MFT programs, 50% of students were Euro-American and 20%, African American. Post-degree programs report 74% of Euro-American students and 13% African American students. The percentage of African American faculty teaching at these schools was less than 10%.
The lack of African American instructors can often have a negative impact on African American students (Boucher, 2016; Kuo & Belland, 2016). Interactions between minority instructors and students has shown to be a vital and effective component in the educational relationship (Aikens et al., 2017; Elliot, Brenneman, Carney, & Robbins, 2018). Despite the push to effectively implement policies such as affirmative action and diversity in the workplace, racial disparities in education remain impactful on minority groups. Research conducted by Li and Koedel (2017) highlight minority faculty represent only 9.6% at postsecondary institutions, out of the 9.6%, statistics reported by the United States Department of Education in 2013 reveal that only 6% were African American. The research also shows that African American students are more likely to achieve better grades, and complete educational programs when being educated and supported by African American faculty (Kuo & Belland, 2016). The student-teacher relationship in postsecondary education is often viewed as one of the tools for success. African American instructors provide more than just content and academic knowledge, they provide life-skills, act as mentors and advocate for their students (Griffin & Tackie, 2017).
Significance of the Study
The MFT field has been coined as one of the fastest growing programs in the counseling field (Fife, D’Aniello, Scott, & Sullivan, 2019; Johnson, Miller, Bradford, & Anderson, 2017); the systemic approach to individual and family issues has been proven effective and necessary (Johnson et al., 2017). MFT programs place strong emphasis on cultural diversity best practices when working with clients but there is little emphasis on the lack of diversity of clinicians. Research indicates minorities will eventually be the majority in the United States (Johnson, Miller, Bradford, & Anderson, 2017); this change in demographics will surely necessitate a change in conversations surrounding diversity. For educators in the MFT field, the aim of this study is to acknowledge and implement steps to address issues of race and diversity in the classroom, in addition to the cultural competence courses required by the MFT field. Understanding and identifying barriers that prevent African American students from entering or completing MFT programs can be complex, but this study can be used as a tool to assess needs in specified areas (Wittenborn, Blow, Holtrop, & Parra-Cardona, 2019).
The study will contribute significantly to the field of MTF as it will educate the future generations undertaking the discipline with the approaches that they can use to promote diversity. The research has placed strong emphasis on the aspect of cultural diversity, especially when dealing with African American MTF students. The recommendations provided in the study are implementable and reliable in achieving this objective. Moreover, the study is a contribution to the literature associated with MTF in the sense that the literature on the contribution of African American MTF students is limited. The research fills this gap and provides the basis for literature that can be referred to in future research. The dissertation can also act as reference material by scholars and educators pursuing the field considering it is an original piece done qualitatively.
The significance of the study is to provide a voice to marginalized African American MFT students whom may be yearning to see more diversity in the field and allow their voices to be heard by giving them an opportunity to share their lived experiences without fear of rejection and judgment (Wittenborn, Blow, Holtrop, & Parra-Cardona, 2019). The phenomenological inquiry approach allows the unique stories shared by the participants to be heard by a broader audience. The study has the potential to contribute to the MFT field by encouraging faculty and administration in MFT programs to increase diversity training opportunities, review recruitment practices, increase dialogue centered around race in the MFT field and build relationships with external stakeholders that promote diversity in the field. The study can also be used as a tool to initiate dialogue around various programmatic deficiencies (Wittenborn et al., 2019). The study can potentially create mentorship opportunities as well as provide faculty an opportunity to share various perspectives on cultural issues not currently in textbooks. Bridging the gap and increasing communication between minority students and faculty may assist the students in coping with the strenuous demands of the curriculum and guaranteeing that universities are adhering to accreditation criterions (Piercy, 2016). The research seeks to assist in identifying ways to ensure the current COAMFTE curriculum is inclusive to all (Hoff & Distelberg, 2017). Recruitment and retention of African American students and faculty may also be impacted by the proposed research. An equitable learning environment promotes cultural competency within academia and professionally. The research can be used to demonstrate patterns that will elevate and ultimately impact the student-teacher relationship (Harris-McKoy, Guitierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). It is plausible to that the lack of diversity may be one of the primary issues contributing to the slow increase of minority students enrolling in COAMFTE accredited MFT programs.
Research Question
MFT is a trending field of counseling and expanding cultural competence while working with diverse clients is essential (Fife, D’Aniello, Scott, & Sullivan, 2019; Johnson, Miller, Bradford, & Anderson, 2017). However, researchers pay little attention to issues of the diversity of professionals who work in this area, which is a critical gap. It remains unclear what barriers arise in front of African American students who choose the MFT specialization, and what impact the lack of interaction between these learners and African American instructors has on them (Piercy, 2016). At the same time, Kuo and Belland (2016) show that support from African American instructors can play a significant role as a tool to help them to achieve success. Therefore, the quality of interactions between African American students and their mentors can be seen as a baseline variable that influences their academic performance and completion rate (Aikens et al., 2017). In this regard, the foundation of this study is to explore the life experiences of students from racial minorities (in this case, African Americans) in the context of their limited interaction with instructors.
The qualitative research question delineates the procedure in which the research will be conducted; it is viewed as the blueprint of the study (Yeong, Ismail, & Hamzah, 2018). The research question should clearly articulate the phenomenon the researcher is seeking to study (Kivunja, 2016). Research questions should be focused, intentional, meaningful and insightful. If the researcher desires to use open-ended questions to gather data in order to analyze participant experiences, phenomenological qualitative is used (Aydin, 2016; Kivunja, 2016, Van Manen, 2017). Husserl introduced phenomenology in the early twentieth century; Husserl described phenomenology as a pure, neutral research guided by unexamined assumptions (Husserl, 1979; Van Manen, 2017). Husserl’s desire was to consciously focus on the pure and organic experiences of the individual, absorbing and respecting their intentionality of the experience (Husserl, 1970; Vincini, 2017). The phenomenon being studied is the limited exposure to African American MFT instructors experienced by African American MFT students. To address the phenomenon of the research the following question guided the study:
What are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors?
The researcher asked the following interview questions:

1. Describe your experience as an African American student in an MFT program.
2. Describe what your experiences have been like with your non-minority instructors.
   The main research question and the two interview questions clearly give the reader a description of the phenomenon being studied, and the methodology being used to conduct the research.
   Definition of Terms
   African American. For the purpose of this study African American is defined as a group of individuals with African roots who were brought to the United States or the New Colony by way of the slave trade (Mintz & Price, 1992). It is often used for American born blacks to show a connection to their African roots. The term African American and Black are often used interchangeably to define an individual’s race. Participants were identified as African American by using demographic questionnaire and self-reporting.
   Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE). Accrediting body for graduate and post-graduate marriage and family therapy programs (COAMFTE, 2014). Once the potential participant identifies the school they are currently enrolled in, the researcher will look up the school to ensure it is a COAMFTE accredited MFT program; this information is easily accessible on the COAMFTE site.
   Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). Accrediting body counseling and related programs (CACREP, 2019). Once the potential participant identifies the school they are currently enrolled in, the researcher will look up the school’s program to ensure it is a CACREP accredited.
   Diversity. Inclusion of all individuals regardless race, socioeconomic status, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, culture, and gender (Civitillo, Juang, & Schachner, 2018).
   Enrolled. An individual labeled as a student actively attending an educational institution (Jeffe, Andriole, Wathington, & Tai, 2014). Participants self-identified as enrolled.
   Faculty. An individual teaching or in an administration position at the post-secondary education level (Shattuck et al., 2016). Faculty and instructor are used interchangeably in the research.
   Instructor. Individual teaching core content in an academic setting (Clark-Gordon, Bowman, Hadden, & Frisby, 2019). For the purposes of this research, faculty and instructor may be used interchangeably when discussing teaching.
   Limited Exposure to African American Instructors. Student with minimal to no interaction with an African American faculty member (Lindsay & Hart, 2017). Participants self-reported their interactions with African American instructors in their respective MFT program.
   Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT). The therapeutic practice of utilizing systemic interventions to improve family function (Blow & Karam, 2017).
   Students. An individual currently enrolled in a COAMFTE or CACREP accredited marriage and family therapy program (D’Aniello & Perkins, 2016).
   Research Design
   The research design for the study is phenomenological qualitative; it focuses solely on the lived experience of the participant. Phenomenology seeks to understand the lived experiences of participants Englander, 2016; Mohajan, 2018). Creating a standard definition of phenomenology can be difficult, it is dependent on the philosophical tradition. Edmund Husserl (1859– 1938) has been called the father of the phenomenological movement. Phenomenology was a response to restore the connection between science and man (Jamali, 2018). Husserl’s believed the concept that describing the lived experience is the essence of phenomenology. According to Moustakas (1994), “In phenomenological science, a relationship always exists between the external perception of natural objects and internal perceptions, memories, and judgments” (p. 47). Phenomenology subjectively emphasizes understanding the individual experience. The researcher develops a question and uses a logical and systematic approach to analysis.
   Qualitative research often emphasizes the relationship between the researcher and the phenomenon being studied (Murshed & Zhang, 2016), in this case, the researcher is a former MFT student with limited exposure to African American instructors. The researcher seeks to infer and apply the participant experiences to the population or phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological qualitative research is appropriate for the study because it will describe the lived experiences of the participant and provide “a textural description of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon” (Moustakas, 1994, pg. 34). The researcher is not interested in predicting what methods would improve hiring practices of African American instructors, but rather to gain knowledge about how the student’s lived experiences have led to the successful completion of the MFT program and how the students view diversity in the field.
   Since the human experience is complex and subjective, allowing participants to share their rich experiences gives meaning to the research (Jamali, 2018). Guillen (2019) emphasizes the importance of understanding phenomenology allows individuals to present information in various ways, in phenomenology, this is known as “modes of appearing” (Bevan, 2014, p. 138). An idea, memory, or emotion are all experienced from different perspectives by each participant in order to provide a voice to the experiences. Husserl emphasizes bracketing so the researcher can maintain objectivity throughout the research process (Englander, 2016; Guillen, 2019; Lingis, 2017). When a researcher embarks upon research, they need to define their position within the bounds of professional practices. The researcher’s bias, beliefs and preconceptions are addressed in the beginning, so the study is not impacted; this is known as epoche (Flood, 2013; Moustakas, 1994). In following Moustakas’(1986) data analysis process, the researcher employed two bracketing techniques to help with any feelings of bias. The bracketing strategies used were frequent check-in with mentor to review data and reflective journaling prior to and after each participant interview (Moustakas, 1994).
   Assumptions and Limitations
   Assumptions
   Phenomenology is a philosophical approach to research (Englander, 2016). It is important that the researcher understand the philosophical assumptions underlying the research they are presenting. There are three paradigms that lay the foundation for qualitative research- ontological, epistemology and axiology (Yilmaz, 2013). Epistemology seeks to reveal meaning and subjective experiences; it would be difficult for the researcher to understand experiences through analytical data (Alase, 2017; Norman, 2019). Meanings and experiences are constructed through engagement and understanding of culture. The researcher relies heavily on the direct verbiage of the client (Yilmaz, 2013). Ontology looks at the multiple realities that exist; participant experiences and perspectives can be grouped into themes (Norman, 2019). The researcher approaches the study with the understanding that multiple perspectives will arise from the participants, for example, limited exposure to African American MFT instructors may impact each participant in a similar way but the way it is expressed to the interviewer will change when each participant is interviewed. The individual participant experiences are reported in the results of the study (Moustakas, 1994). Each researcher understands that they have preconceived and a personal attachment to the study (Yilmaz, 2013, pg. 316); this is known as axiology.
   From a social constructivism lens, the researcher seeks to view participant experiences from a subjective view (Knapp, 2019). It is easy for individuals to develop subjective meanings of their experiences—meanings directed toward certain objects or things. These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than narrow the meanings into a few categories or ideas” (p. 24). Individuals experience the world in idiosyncratic ways, quantitative research fails to capture unique events that have the ability to shape lives. At its core, the social constructivism paradigm finds immense value in knowledge and meaning, and the value placed on experiences (Peck & Mummery, 2018).
   Limitations
   The issues of quality in qualitative research cannot be addressed by a single or constant method. The question of quality in qualitative research often depends on the emergent methods of inquiry; it is different from the question of quality in quantitative research (Munthe-Kaas, Glenton, Booth, Noyes, & Lewin, 2019). In quantitative research, validity, reliability, generalizability, and objectivity are the criterion used to assess the trustworthiness of the data (Munthe-Kaas et al., 2019). In qualitative research, credibility, transferability, and dependability are used to establish trustworthiness (Yardley, 2017). Credibility in social science research is often referred to as, valid conclusions (Morgado, Meireles, Neves, Amaral, & Ferreira, 2017); it is a key issue in research design. Qualitative researchers, unlike quantitative researchers rarely have the benefit of formal comparison; therefore, it is often room for error during the research process.
   Traditionally, validity in qualitative research is rooted in the positivist tradition (Yardley, 2017), it pursues transparency, rigor in the process and truth in results of the data. True validity in qualitative research leads to credibility and generalizability (Cook, Kuper, Hatala, & Ginsburg, 2016). The researcher adheres to Moustakas’ (1994) data analysis method to safeguard credibility. Reliability is used to test and evaluate quantitative research. In qualitative research, reliability and dependability are used synonymously; these indicate the ability to replicate the study (Boucerredj & Debbache, 2018). If future researchers want to facilitate a similar study, they should be able to follow the step-by-step methods to obtain similar results. Transferability and generalizability occur when the data is representative of the population being studied (Korstiens & Moser, 2018). To reduce bias, the researcher employs various data sources to create an inclusive understanding of the phenomenon (Korsteins & Moser, 2018); this allows for multiple perspectives.
   Delimitations
   During the research process, one must define the boundaries and scope of research (Dowling, Lloyd, & Suschet-Pearson, 2016); this includes identifying all elements in the researcher’s control. Elements controlled by the researcher are delimitations; these characteristics identify the options the research chose not to include in the study. In this case, the study seeks to understand the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors; one of the inclusion criteria is participants had to identify as African Americans; any other minorities were excluded from the study. Substantial research has been conducted on minority students in mental health counseling programs (Whittenborn, Blow, Holtrop, & Parra-Cardona, 2019). Mental health programs focusing on areas outside of the MFT field were excluded. The researcher felt it was important to focus on an area with limited exposure.
   Organization of the Remainder of the Study
   As the MFT field continues to make its impact in the field of counseling, a long, hard look at the diversity may be necessary. Curriculum in the areas of race and diversity are mandated requirements of COAMFTE, but programmatic structure often does not display diversity amongst students and professors. As the demographics of the United States change, so must the way we look at diversity and culture. This chapter provided an introduction to the background of the study, the purpose of the study, research problem, the need for the study and the significance of the study. Chapter two will provide a thorough literature review on how academic success or failure is related to faculty-student relationships. Chapter two will also look at what the literature says about African American’s in the MFT field, mentor-mentee relationships, self-efficacy and its role in student success and how the topic relates to the counselor education and supervision field. Chapter three is an in-depth look at the research question and the research design. A detailed description of the participants is given as well as the data collection process. Ethical considerations are discussed and summarized. In chapter four, the researcher presents the data and provides a thematic analysis of the themes derived from data collection and makes sure it is consistent with the chosen methodology. Chapter five presents a summary of results, conclusions and implications for future research.

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The main objectives of Chapter 2 are to identify the barriers that African American students experience in the educational environment and to flesh out the difficulties in studying the MFT. In particular, the existing literature contains a number of critical gaps that highlight the need to explore the experiences of African American students in the context of their learning in family therapy and marriage programs. Currently, there are many studies, which address the issues of discrimination and under-representation of students who belong to ethnic minorities, and the lack of support for them from the academic staff. Literature sources also provide quantitative information on cultural diversity in the MFT field. However, it is possible to observe a significant limitation of the qualitative data obtained from the analysis of the direct experience of African American students. Therefore, one of the objectives of Chapter 2 is to review the existing literature to maximize understanding of trends that occur in educational environments that involve ethnic minorities.
The search for a literature foundation for the study was based on the following strategies. First of all, the researcher turned to the most popular and relevant databases that would cover the humanities and social sciences. In particular, one of the primary research resources was ProQuest, which allowed conducting a convenient and easy search for topics in peer-reviewed journals. The second most relevant database was Dissertations @ Capella. It allowed finding professional articles with the necessary statistical information, and some qualitative studies. In order to expand the research framework, the researcher turned to secondary databases and journals that dealt with psychological or social disciplines. The second strategy was the careful selection of search terms. In particular, when searching for literature, the researcher initially focused on broad topics such as “African American MFT students”, “African Americans, higher education, barriers”, “underrepresentation of African Americans in higher education”, “support and mentoring in higher education”, and so on. In this regard, this approach made it possible to identify the central sources that would reveal the problem in its broader aspect. The next step was to narrow down the research topic. In this case, the search terms included requests such as “underrepresentation of African Americans in MFT”, “African American instructors in MFT”, “COAMFTE accreditation standards”, and other more specific topics. As a result, all these approaches have allowed selecting a list of resources that reveal the topic as much as possible and make it possible to identify the gaps that exist in this area.
The literature review will consider several key topics. First of all, the author addresses the topic of the historical experience of African American students in higher education and statistics that demonstrate the pressing problems of ethnic minorities. The next step is to define the theoretical orientation of the research. In particular, this section looks at Social Cognitive Theory and its constructs. Further, the author determines the ways of working with the literature review, after which the move to the synthesis of the found theoretical evidence occurs. In particular, the next sections cover topics such as Student-Teacher Relationship on Educational Success, Student-Teacher Relationship in Higher Education, African American Students in Higher Education, African Americans in Mental Health Counseling, African Americans in the Marriage and Family Therapy Field. African Americans in Counseling Education and Supervision, Development of Professional Identity in CES, Understanding CACREP and COAMFTE Programs. At the end of the chapter, the researcher explains how methodological literature was used.
Historically, African Americans struggled to find their place and voice in higher education (Lindsey & Walker, 2016). They often seek approval and recognition from faculty in order to navigate spaces of discomfort. When they feel less supported, feelings of inadequacy are internalized and play a critical role in academic success (White, DeCuir-Gunby, & Kim, 2018). Feelings of inadequacy and lack of motivation are traits of limited perceived self-efficacy (White, DeCuir-Gunby, & Kim, 2016). In 2015, We the Protestors, a social advocacy group spoke to minority students on college campuses across the United States; a list of demands was created from these conversations. The list was sent to various college administrators to address racial inequalities, the current racial climate and discrimination taking place in institutes of higher education. Students began to stage class walk-outs, organized protests, marches and rallies; the group even aligned itself with the Black Lives Matter movement. African American students across the world wanted their voices to be heard. The continued microaggressions and discrimination in the classroom could no longer be tolerated and African American students have become increasingly frustrated with how underrepresented they are in postsecondary education.
Research conducted by Hernandez, Taylor, and McDowell (2009) suggests the severe underrepresentation of African Americans in the MFT field range from clinicians and supervisors to students and faculty. The commission on accreditation for marriage and family therapy education (COAMFTE) statistics indicate the employment rates of African American faculty in accredited MFT programs are at a rate of 10% or lower (COAMFTE, 2017). In 2000, the number of African American students enrolled in COAMFTE accredited programs was a staggering 18%; this is contrastingly different that the number of Euro-Americans enrolled at 80%.
Given these statistics, it is a growing realization that lack of diversity remains ubiquitous. Frustration can set in, especially when the importance of cultural diversity is taught rigorously. The American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) recognizes the need for increased diversity in student recruitment, retention and hiring practices and the counseling field must effectively address cultural differences at the administrative level (Harris-McKoy, Guitierrez, Strachan & Winley, 2017).
In 2017, the United States Bureau of Labor and Statistics reported data showing there were 189,000 clinicians of color with only 7.9% of those clinicians being African American; the number of African American MFT clinicians is an even smaller percentage at 3.8%. In 2017, 1,753 Euro-American students earned an MFT degree, compared to only 508 African American students (U.S. Bureau Labor of Statistics, 2017). Research supports the idea of African American students seeking out educational programs where the faculty and administration share similar racial and ethnic backgrounds as the student (Pham, 2018). Using current literature and the lived experiences of the participants, this research seeks to bring attention to the lack of diversity in the MFT field despite the growing contributions made by African Americans to the MFT field (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017). The MFT field has been intentional in its increased efforts to harmonize multiculturalism into the curriculum but focuses solely on the diversity of the client (Chen, Austin, Hughes, & May, 2019; Harris-McKoy et al., 2017).
In the accreditation standards set forth by COAMFTE, it explicitly states,
programs must strive for diversity and inclusion. Programs strive for a diverse faculty and student body in terms of race, age, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, socioeconomic status, disability, health status, religious and spiritual practices, nation of origin or other relevant social categories, immigration, and/or language, with regard for the rights of religiously affiliated institutions. (p. 3)
The lack of equity and diversity in MFT programs remains an ambiguous area that needs to be addressed (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017). Chapter 2 delineates a literature review in the African American experience in MFT also looking at the African American experience in postsecondary education. A literature review is defined as the systematic and comprehensive study of scholarly works that address a specific topic (Galvan & Galvan, 2017). Once valuable literature has been identified, the researcher analyzes and synthesizes it for the audience. In this case, the literature review is a crucial component in reviewing the current literature on African American’s in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) and the gap that exists in the current research. The researcher should employ a rigorous method to identify and critique relevant materials. The literature should be valid, reliable and high-quality. Validity is directly linked to the meticulousness of the search and the researcher’s ability to distinguish anything relevant to the study (Cypress, 2018). The literature review will provide a more comprehensive picture of the information on the topic; a single piece of literature could potentially provide a misleading picture.
In chapter 2, the researcher will illuminate the literature to support the unique experiences of African American MFT students and their experiences in MFT programs when taught by Euro-American faculty. The researcher will provide an overview of the methods of searching that were used to access the literature to support the research. Next, an extensive review of the theoretical orientation and finally a review of the research. Peer-reviewed journals and seminal works were the primary sources used by the researcher; seminal works from theorists are often referred to as original empirical research (Cypress, 2018). The journal articles used to support the research are no older than seven-years. Journal articles provide the most up-to-date information, while textbooks often provide broad information that can be. To justify the study, the researcher must identify materials that relate to the existing body of literature; it should also build upon previous research. Issues that have not been previously addressed will be revealed in a thorough literature search and review. In order to for the researcher to have a comprehensive review of the literature identifying the methods of searching is essential; this allows the researcher access to the most up to date information on their topic.
Methods of Searching
The researcher used the following keywords to conduct a full search of the literature: African American MFT students, self-efficacy, Bandura’s social cognitive theory, African American students in higher education, African Americans in post-secondary education, faculty-teacher relationship, mentoring for African American students, COAMFTE, CACREP, history of African Americans in education, Brown v. Board of Education, qualitative research, quantitative research, phenomenological method, Moustakas, qualitative data analysis, MFT programs, MFT students, MFT instructors, minority MFT students, adult learners, continuing education for African Americans, adult student learning styles, African American student adult learning styles, African American marriage during slavery, African Americans in counseling, counselor education and supervision, African Americans in CES, African American faculty in doctoral programs, minorities in COAMFTE programs, minorities in MFT doctoral programs, Self-efficacy in African Americans, vicarious experiences in self-efficacy, social constructivism, professional identity in CES. The following databases were used to search for the literature: ProQuest, Dissertations @ Capella, Summon, Academic Search Premier, Chronicle of Higher Education, ERIC, Education database, Education Research Complete, PsycARTICLES, SocINDEX with Full Text. The researcher narrowed the search parameters by using publication dates between five-to-seven years; some seminal works were used as primary resources. Statistics provided were the most up-to-date numbers published by the databases used.

Theoretical Orientation for the Study
Social Cognitive Theory

The researcher will use self-efficacy as defined by Bandura (1986) to explore the factors connected to success or failure of African American marriage and family therapy (MFT) students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT) is a revamp or expansion of his Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986). Both theories have deep roots in B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning (Abdullah, 2019). According to Bandura, behaviors can be learned through direct observation without experiencing reinforcement (Bandura, 1977). Unlike Freud, Bandura failed to solely credit behavior to cognitions and feelings (Abdullah, 2019). Bandura’s, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a well-balanced combination of behavioral and cognitive theories (Horsburgh & Ippolitto, 2018). A triadic-reciprocal model is used to show the relationship between environment, individual and personal behavior (Bandura, 1986). Environmental factors are identified as external stimuli that influence the individual; personal and individual factors are internal (Abdullah, 2019). Bandura suggested, through cognitions, individuals can control their reactions to internal and external stimuli, and learning takes place through the use of motivation and cognition (Bandura, 1999). SCT has a lengthy history, rooted in learning. To expand on his seminal works, Bandura incorporated observational learning. SCT continued to grow as self-efficacy and self-reflection became core to triadic reciprocity (Riley et al., 2016). Social cognitive theory is not a one-dimensional theory, there key constructs to the model explaining how

Key Constructs of Social Cognitive Theory
The key constructs of SCT are modeling, self-regulation, self-efficacy, observational learning, and reinforcement (Bandura, 1986, 2001). An understanding of these terms is essential to explore the experiences of African American students at the MFT field and to examine aspects of the interaction between African American students and instructors. In particular, the experience of African American students is a special form of modeling and processing of incoming information, on the basis of which the formation of their connections with the environment is carried out. In this case, the model is a higher education system that does not support the basic needs of African American learners and hinders their full-fledged education. The underrepresentation of African American instructors and their inability to provide quality support to students of the same racial category is another factor that may explain the level of effectiveness of the educational environment. In this regard, the theoretical perspective and components of the Social Cognitive Theory are intended to understand the determinants of self-efficacy and learning quality from the perspective of African American students.
Modeling, as defined by Bandura (1986) occurs when a learner observes an action, processes the action, then performs the sequence of events to match the action. Through vicarious learning, the observer decides to model behaviors in an appropriate manner that is unique to their environment (Bandura, 1986). Observational learning and modeling are directly interrelated; new behaviors are learned and modeled by individuals in their everyday life. For example, an intern observes their supervisor using a specific therapeutic model when working with clients and decides to model the supervisor by using that same model on a client. Three key components must be present for the individual to respond to observational learning: (1) model attributes, (2) value of the modeled behavior for achieving the desired goal, and (3) qualities of the observer (Bandura, 1986). The process of observation learning also employs, “attention, retention, rehearsal, and production” (Bandura, 1986, pg. 51).
The primary cognitive process is a person’s sense of self-efficacy: self-efficacy suggests an individual’s regulation of motivation, affective arousal, and action (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 1989). Self-efficacy is a perceived belief in an individual’s ability to accomplish tasks. Bandura identified four elements of self-efficacy: performance outcomes, physiological feedback, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experiences (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 1997); when combined, these elements can help determine if an individual has the ability to complete tasks and show resiliency in complex and difficult situations (Bandura, 1986). Bandura’s (1986) research reveals a direct link between self-efficacy and academic performance. Self-efficacy, as defined by (Bandura, 1986) is the idea an individual has the capacity and self-assuredness in their abilities to perform any task. The theory suggests the individual’s perception of their ability to execute tasks is linked to their desired outcome (Bandura, 1986). A student displaying an increase in self-efficacy can positively improve academic achievement (Urlarcher, Wolery, & Ledford, 2016). The opposite is true for students that present with low self-efficacy; the focus is on their deficiencies (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986). Students with a strong sense of self-efficacy are goal-oriented, focused and utilize their cognitive resources during challenging situations (Bandura, 2012). Being in control of self by setting goals, monitoring behavior, and reinforcement are self-regulation skills.
Research illustrates self-regulation is linked to positive student engagement (Bandura, 2015). Self-regulation encompasses skills such as metacognition, motivation, and cognition (Bandura, 2015). Adult students often use self-regulation as a tool for success. A study conducted by Chih-Yuan Sun and Rueda (2012) explored the variables that lead to the success or failure of adult learners, the data revealed students who are less self-regulated are likely to be less engaged in the learning environment; this is often due to lack of motivation, encouragement, and support from instructors. Data also revealed students who display higher levels of self-regulation are more engaged in the learning environment (Bandura, 2015). Bandura felt the responses (internal or external) experienced by individuals impact the prospect of the individual participating in the behavior; this is reinforcement. Reinforcements are what link behavior and environment (Bandura, 1986). Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) has been identified as providing a framework for research in the counselor education and supervision field of study and teaching.
One of the primary components of the counselor education field is teaching the adult learner. Whether a supervisor is teaching clinical- foundational skills or ethics, the relationship is enhanced when there is a concrete knowledge of adult learning styles (Cox, 2015). Previously, the term pedagogy has been used to describe the theoretical concept of teaching. Recently, the term pedagogy is described as, archaic, lackluster and failing to encompass the specific needs of the adult learner (Akin, 2014). Andragogy is a term presently used by adult educators; the methods and approaches used by adult educators are often very different than those teaching children. The term, andragogy created by Knowles (1977) is defined as, “the art and science of teaching adults” (Knowles, 1977, p. 68). Knowles (1980) model distinguishes adult learning from childhood learning by separating it into two parts: andragogy and pedagogy. From an andragogical viewpoint, adult learners engage in education from a problem-centered stance; the information they are seeking will help prepare them for the future. The adult learner is independent, self-directed and open to collaborative relationships with peers and instructors. The pedagogical perspective dramatically differs; children are learning for their future (Knowles, 1977). The younger student has little to no life experience to help in their educational experience.
In order to meet the unique needs of adult learners, educators and schools offer a variety of programs that fit their daily schedule. Adult learners often seek programs that best fit their everyday lifestyle, for most, they opt for an online learning environment or a hybrid program that offers a traditional classroom setting (McLeod, 2019). Developmentally, adults are in a different stage of the life cycle than children; the adult student has roles and responsibilities that may include children of their own (Deffenbaugh, 2016). Education is an additional layer of accountability the adult student undertakes when becoming a full-time student. These distinct differences must be addressed when working directly with the adult student. Working with the adult African American student can present additional challenges. Historically, African American adult students experience education differently than their non-minority counterparts (Bond, Cason & Baxley, 2015). Research indicates faculty have expectations of student achievement based on race and ethnicity (Gona, Pusey-Reid, Lussier-Duynstee, & Gall, 2019). Differentiated expectations have the potential to lead to variations in quality instruction (Gona et al., 2019). It is also evidenced African American students place emphasis on “communal values” (Flanner, 1995, p. 153); this term can be defined as working together collaboratively with peers and faculty as well as sharing information and valuing community. African American students use learning as a way to bond and uplift their community.
Throughout history, the term learning has taken on various definitions. Philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Confucius have historically defined learning in the context of nature and sensory perception (Tejada, Parmar, Purnell, & Lang, 2016). Learning, in the context of the research study is defined as the continuous process of obtaining knowledge (Desjardins, Lans, & Ederer, 2016). To comprehensively work with supervisees, counselor educators and supervisors are tasked with understanding the complex ways in which learning occurs. Bandura suggests learning occurs as a result of information processing and not mechanic conditioning (Ata, 2018; Bandura, 1986). Initially, Bandura’s social learning theory focused solely on the phenomenon of modeling as the major component of learning. As Bandura moved further away from the behaviorist approach, he renamed the theory, social cognitive theory, placing additional emphasis on self-efficacy, self-regulative capacity, and imitation (Bandura, 1986). Bandura (1977) believed students integrate information when they are exposed to social experiences and individuals in authority, they can easily model. Perception of self-efficacy is directly linked to expected outcomes the individual creates based on modeling behaviors (Bandura, 1977; 1986).
The perception of self-efficacy is directly linked to expected outcomes the individual creates based on modeling behaviors (Bandura, 1977; 1986). Self-efficacy provides individuals with the confidence to learn or perform a new task. It is linked to an individual’s self-regulation, motivation, and desire to complete a task (Bandura, 1986). Consequently, African American MFT students may have a lower self-efficacy compared to their White peers due to the limited exposure to MFT instructors who reflect their cultural backgrounds.
However, there are a number of critical studies that refute the validity and effectiveness of the practical application of Bandura’s model. In particular, according to Biglan (1987), the self-efficacy theory does not explain how interactions between responses occur. That is, the resulting behavior can be associated with other, unforeseen circumstances that are caused by the influence of environmental factors, which can also be used to analyze the experience of African American students. In turn, according to Marzillier & Eastman (1984), Bandura places particular emphasis on the process of self-efficacy, while the result should be of particular value instead. Specifically, these researchers argue that self-efficacy should be identified as a more valuable component of predicting the subject’s future behavior. In this regard, the theory of self-efficacy must, first of all, take into account the practical outcome, and its relationship to assessment and subsequent transformation of behavior is more significant (Marzillier & Eastman, 1984). Tryon (1981) has also found a gap in Bandura’s social cognitive theory. In this case, the researcher points out that Bandura does not take into account alternative explanations for what significance social reinforcement can have and what behavioral results it can lead to.
Review of the Literature
A literature review is defined as the systematic and comprehensive study of scholarly works that address a specific topic (Galvan & Galvan, 2017). The literature review also helps to provide a more comprehensive picture of the information on the topic; a single piece of literature could potentially provide a misleading picture. Once valuable literature has been identified, the researcher analyzes and synthesizes it for the audience. The main literature themes covered in the literature review are- student-teacher relationships in educational success, student-teacher relationship in higher education, African American students in higher education, African Americans in the MFT field. African Americans in counselor education and supervision, development of professional identity in counselor education and supervision, and understanding CACREP and COAMFT programs. The literature review is a crucial component in reviewing the current literature on African American students in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) and the gap that exists in the current research.
Seminal works from theorists are often referred to as, “original empirical research” (Oakland, 2015). To justify the study, the researcher must identify materials that relate to the existing body of literature; it should also build upon previous research. Issues that have not been previously addressed will be revealed in a thorough literature search and review. The literature review is a crucial component in reviewing the current literature on African American students in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) and the gap that exists in the current research. This literature review is organized into sections. The first two sections will discuss the importance of the student-teacher relationship and its impact on educational success and explore the student-teacher relationship in the post-secondary education setting; followed by a discussion on African American students in higher education. Sections four and five will focus on African American in mental health counseling and African American students in the marriage and family therapy (MFT) field.

Student-Teacher Relationship on Educational Success
The impact of the student and teacher relationship has often been overlooked in research until recently. Quite a bit of the existing research uses the quantitative approach to assess the importance and effectiveness of the relationship (Evans, Butterworth, & Law, 2019; Lei, Cui, & Chiu, 2016; Timmermans, van der Werf, Greetje, & Rubie-Davies, 2019; Xuan et al., 2019; Zee, de Jong, & Koomen 2017). There is very limited research that uses a qualitative approach to understand the lived experiences of this relationship dynamic (Cook et al., 2018; Xuan et al., 2019). In order to understand the importance of this unique relationship, it must be defined. The developmental literature defines the student-teacher relationship (STR) as one grounded in continuity; the connection of two individuals in an academic setting showing trust, respect, and interdependent interactions (Asikainen, Blomster, & Virtanen, 2018). In previous years, person-centered education was the focus of the counseling and education community (Proctor & Hayes, 2017). Carl Rogers, known as the founder of person-centered approach to teaching, found empirical research demonstrating the student-teacher relationship is the foundation to successful student outcomes (Rogers, 1983, 1990). The shift to the learner-centered model is loosely based on Rogers (1969) theory of education. Rogers (1951; 1969) felt learners, like clients are individual beings taking initiative, capable of making intelligent choices, flexible, and have a genuine desire to acquire knowledge. According to Rogers (1969) “certain attitudinal qualities which exist in the personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner yield significant learning” (p. 106).
Researchers have also applied Bowlby’s attachment theory to the student-teacher relationship (Geerlings, Thijs, & Verkuyten, 2017; Veríssimo, Torres, Silva, Fernandes, Vaughn, & Santos, 2017). In a positive relationship, there is a reciprocal attachment implying the mutual need for the other to create and maintain success. The student must demonstrate a balanced level of dependence and independence as the relationship matures; this also helps the teacher to preserve their professional identity (Murray, Kosty, & Hauser-McLean, 2016). This need for balance suggests the relationship is a unique one; a student can flourish with or without the assistance of the teacher, but the teacher cannon successfully flourish if there is no student dependent on their expertise (Zee, de Jong, & Koomen, 2017). One of the most influential measures of learning outcomes is student satisfaction (Kuo & Belland, 2016), student success is often measured by self-reporting tools provided to students in the form of an evaluation. The information gathered directly impacts program evaluation, and student retention (Kuo & Belland, 2016). The overarching theme in various research is students who experience a higher level of satisfaction are more likely to result in higher program completion, increased peer interactions, and the potential of the student having the desire to take on the role of educator in the field of academia (Imam, Tasadduq, Ahmad, & Aldosari, 2017; Nortvig, Petersen, & Balle, 2018). Student satisfaction is also directly linked to faculty interaction and instructional guidance (Evans, Butterworth, & Law, 2019). Zee, De Jong and Koomen (2017) research study found the acquisition of knowledge is heightened by faculty support and guidance.
The student-teacher relationship helps to foster an environment of trust, resilience, perseverance and enhances the educational experience (Skea, 2017). A clear line of communication between faculty and student is one of the essential factors for a successful relationship. Students want to feel they have access and meaningful interactions with their instructor (Timmermans, van der Werf, & Rubie-Davies, 2019). Students that have a connection with an instructor are more likely to feel valued and have a sense of belonging (Wang, Leary, Taylor, & Derosier, 2016); they are also more engaged in the learning process. Feelings of belonging and value are often paramount for minority students (Skea, 2017).
Research indicates minority students of any age often experience negative relationships with their Euro-American teachers (Geerlings, Thijs, & Verkuyten, 2017). An important study conducted by Decker et al., (2013) used an exploratory study approach to assess the relationship quality between African American students and Euro-American instructors. This particular study looked at both teacher and student perspectives on relationships. The study relates to the population of focus, which is the African American MTF students in the sense that they have experienced he same inconvenient environment. The relationship that the minority group of students have with their white educators is quite worrying as it does not effectively address the social learning theory requirements by Bandura.
Teachers and students have varying perceptions of what represents a quality relationship (Raufelder, Scherber, & Wood, 2016). Conversely, it is essential to highlight the concern Euro-American instructors have when interacting and teaching African American students. One of the primary concerns is how knowledgeable the student perceives the instructor to be, based on cultural differences (Richardson, 2019). An additional layer of concern for Euro-American faculty is the lack of interaction, exposure and cultural awareness they have when working with African American students (Boucher, 2016). In every level of academia, teachers are held accountable for student achievement, yet their incapacity to relate to African American students often reflects negatively on both parties (Boucher, 2016).
It is essential to highlight the importance of recognizing and acknowledging the historical impact race relations has played by influencing the attitudes and treatment of African Americans by Euro-Americans (Linder, Quaye, Lange, Evans, & Stewart, 2020). These differences have the potential to arise in the classroom and impact student-teacher and peer relationships (Cherng & Haplin, 2016). Euro-American instructors by virtue of their historical privilege often fail to bring a level of connectedness to the classroom (Lee & Cunningham, 2019) and it can show in their teaching (Booker & Lim, 2018; Jackson, Bryan & Larkin, 2016). Evolving research uncovers the vital importance of the relationships between teachers and students; it can directly impact motivation, learning, and retention rates. After further review, it was revealed teachers often feel pressure to be a resource to help African American students interact with non-minority staff. As demonstrated by research, students that engage in encouraging and constructive relationships have the potential to counteract adverse student outcomes, this often includes student detachment and disengagement (Linder et al., 2020). Student engagement and constructive relationships play a vital role in the success of students in higher education.
Student-Teacher Relationship in Higher Education
Researchers have devoted a considerable amount of time examining how the student-teacher relationship (STR) contributes to the success of student achievement in primary and secondary levels (Amer & Amer, 2018). Contrastingly, there is limited research on the STR in higher education (Linder et al., 2020). However, the existing research does indicate the effectiveness and quality of interpersonal relationships between faculty and student has been identified as a central and critical motivator of student adjustment, motivation, classroom engagement, student willingness to learn and retention in the post-secondary setting (Piercy, 2016). The student-faculty relationship is often defined as a genuine connection, uniquely characterized by similarities such as, culture, open communication, mutual respect and genuine and organic interactions in various settings (Cahalan, Perna, Yamashita, Ruiz, & Franklin, 2016); these relationships often take on the role of mentor-mentee in higher education. The student trusts the teacher, and the teacher provides instrumental help, and fosters a sense of community and caring in classrooms (Cabrera, Franklin, & Watson, 2016). The student-teacher relationship supports the development of academic outcomes, preparation for future career advancement helps to create motivation and a sense of self, it also creates an environment that encourages positive communication and high expectations as it relates to performance (Jawitz, 2016).
Numerous research studies (Battey, Neal, Leyva, & Adams-Wiggins, 2016; Gasser, Grütter, Buholzer, & Wettstein, 2018; Ingraham, Davidson, &Yonge, 2018; Jacobs & Struyf, 2013; Zygmunt et al., 2018;) have asked students to provide their definition of a supportive and caring teacher. The results show undergraduate and students attending post-secondary education programs used terms such as “democratic,” “egalitarian,” and “forthcoming” (Dobrotina & Erokhina, 2016). Students prefer instructors to stimulate student thinking through interactive engagement (Dobrotina & Erokhina, 2016). The faculty member allows the student a certain level of anonymity and the freedom to be responsible for individual academic growth; this creates a sense of balance between dependence and independence. Students in doctoral programs appreciate instructors who provide constructive, formative, and stern feedback rather than harsh feedback with no substance (Zygmunt et al., 2018). Doctoral students are also concerned with teacher competency, pedagogical tasks, and creative interactions (Dobrotina & Erokhina, 2016). The research suggests an overwhelming response from doctoral students need for teachers to be creative in their approach, communicative and motivating. Both undergraduate and doctoral students’ value instructor enthusiasm, and communication style; this is the foundation of building the relationship.
The research also looks at the quality of the student-teacher relationship from the perspective of the teacher. It shows, teachers appreciate students who quickly adapt to change, take an active role in their educational process, display appropriate social skills, are receptive to feedback and participate in open and honest communication (Jawitz, 2016); this helps to set the standard of learning early in the academic relationship and helps to cultivate positive communication and interactions; this assists in shifting from teacher-centered learning to a student-centered approach (Malczyk, 2018). The student-teacher relationship in any academic setting is pervasively similar to the desire of creating personal relationships with peers (Xerri, Radford, & Shacklock, 2018). Both faculty and student have a desire to be liked, appreciated and respected (Asikainen, Blomster, & Virtanen, 2018). Of course, the dynamics of the relationship will shift depending on the developmental needs of each individual. For example, when the student transitions from learner to practitioner, the instructor’s role becomes more of a mentor and colleague (Xerri, Radford, & Shacklock, 2018).
African American Students in Higher Education
In 1976, the United States started to see an increase in the number of African Americans pursuing degrees of higher education (Page, 2020). Roughly, one-third of students pursuing an undergraduate degree were African American males and African American females in the age range of 18 to 24-years-old (Wolfe & Dilworth, 2015; Davis & Maldonando, 2015). In 2015, statistics from the U.S. Department of Education disclosed the following information, 57.6% of Euro-American students were enrolled into doctoral programs this is in comparison to only 14.1% of African American students enrolled into doctoral level programs. When looking at statistics for African Americans enrolled in a masters or doctoral level marriage and family therapy (MFT) program, enrollment numbers become glaringly lower (Withers, Reynolds, Reed, & Holtrop, 2017). According to McMurtie (2016), the low enrollment numbers of African American students in postsecondary educational programs can lead to feeling underrepresented in higher academia. African American students may begin to feel isolated and excluded in this area; these negative feelings can potentially lead to decreased rates of student retention. Feelings of underrepresentation can also create a competitive environment amongst peers; this has the potential to lead to a failing support system (Hrabowski, 2018). Increasing enrollment of African Americans in higher education has been the topic of extensive research; once students enter these programs, lack of diversity, and representation become contributing factors to retention (Page, 2020).
African American students highlight feelings of isolation and marginalization (Overton, 2018), especially when there are a limited number of African American faculty present in the classroom and in administrative roles. This level of underrepresentation often leaves African American students without a solid support system and inadequate opportunities for mentorship (Dortch, 2016). The vast demographic divide between students in higher education has become concerning. In 2014, the U.S Department of education reported less than 14% of racial and ethnic minorities teach in post-secondary institutions; there are only 6% of African American full-time faculty teaching in post-secondary institutions (Overton, 2018). Conversely, this is in comparison to 76% of Euro-American faculty teaching in post-secondary institutions. Research demonstrates an overwhelming agreement amongst participants showing African American students in higher education feel more supported by their minority teachers (Overton, 2018). To avoid rejection, African American students often resist seeking out support from their Euro-American instructors; when issues of diversity arise, they often feel their concerns are trivialized (Warren-Gordon & Mayes, 2017). African American students struggle with the subtle racial undertones that may be present in the classroom during discussions that center around diversity (Berg, 2016). This can create a challenging classroom environment and make it difficult to create genuine student-teacher connections.
The growing literature (Alt, 2017; Dortch, 2016; Nishina, Lewis, Bellmore, & Witkow, 2019; Spencer-Oatey & Dauber, 2019) suggests there is a direct link between faculty diversity and positive relations with peers for students of color; African American students feel more empowered and comfortable when there are African American faculty in positions of power. In a mentorship, African American students receive the benefit of a role model, but more importantly, they feel more supported due to African American faculty being familiar with societal pressures in an often-tense racial climate. Despite these findings, there has been minimal progress in hiring and retaining African American faculty in institutions of higher education. Students that display high levels of self-efficacy, motivation, have access to a support system, and a teacher- mentor are often successful in doctoral programs (Spencer-Oatey, 2019). African American students experience a lack of interactions with African American faculty and instructors at the doctoral level (Berg, 2016; Reid-Merritt, 2018). Contact with their Euro-American instructors and peers often lead to feelings of discrimination and alienation; building connections and a support system with their Euro-American peers and instructors can prove extremely difficult (Murray, Kosty, & Hauser-McLean, 2016). The lack of connections may lead to feelings of rejection; this can be perceived as a failure and has the potential to spill-over into their academics.
African American student often feel the need to perform better than their Euro-American peers (Plachowski, 2019); they will use academics as a way to show others that they deserve to be at that level of academia (Alt, 2017). African American students are often concerned with being viewed as less educated (Falke, Lawson, Pandit, & Patrick, 2015). When a positive student-teacher relationship is fostered for African American students, it can be an additional ingredient for success. The research suggests African American students have lower retention rates in postsecondary and doctoral programs. Students view the relationships with their advisor, faculty, chairperson or mentor as critical to their success in the program (Morales, Grineski, & Collins, 2017). African American students assigned to Euro-Americans advisors or faculty may often seek out an African American faculty member to build a connection with; this often disrupts the mentoring process or chain-of-command and can create administrative and institutional issues (Rodriguez & Huemmer, 2019). Similarly, this has been affirmed by Brill et al. (2014), indicating quality relationships with instructors and peers can create networking opportunities and provide access to resources that can aid in skill development. This can ultimately lead to a successful support system. Consequently, as African American students transition to more specialized areas such as mental health counseling and MFT, a robust support system and successful network are essential (Dune, Caputi, & Walker, 2018). African American MTF students would be better prepared when they have quality relationships with African American educators and mentors.

African Americans in Mental Health Counseling
In most academic research databases, A quick search on African Americans in mental health counseling will pull up an overabundance of articles and books focusing on working with African American clients but limited research on the experiences of African American practitioners (Dune, Caputi, & Walker, 2018). Bandura (1997), in social learning theory, is quite clear about the experiences and behaviors that drive strong interactions. One element is the need to build opportunities for stronger interactions between an educator and student in the MTF field to create an effective learning process. The audience will often see the terms, multicultural competence and culturally competent counseling being thrown around; these buzz terms often refer to the clinician’s ability to understand and appreciate client diversity. These terms do not directly address diversity amongst the practitioners (Campbell & Litteton, 2018). Culturally competence is a critical component in CACREP accredited programs; curriculum and course work have been designed to addresses issues of diversity, ensuring students they will be more than prepared to tackle diversity issues when they arise, but what happens with African American clinicians who are equipped to handle diversity issues with clients is faced with daily microaggressions from colleague or supervisor.
Several definitions exist for cultural competence but Sue (1998) summarized it best, “one is culturally competent when one possesses the cultural knowledge and skills of a particular culture to deliver effective interventions to members of that culture” (p. 441); it is important to note, the definition is used in the context of therapist-client relationship. When viewing cultural competence from a broader viewpoint, one must think about a system designed to appreciate and acknowledge differences at every level and in every relationship (Clark Moe, & Hays, 2017). The research indicates African American students are often more prepared to work with diverse clients and are very self-aware based on their personal experiences with race and diversity (Baggerly, Tan, Pichotta, & Warner, 2017). An examination of the literature shows African American students in CACREP programs experience isolation, rejections and microaggressions from their Euro-American faculty and peers (Baggerly et al., 2017). African American students also feel there is a dire need for a curriculum specifically addressing racial sensitivity when working with minority students (Celinska & Swazo, 2016).
As the demographics of the United States population changes, so should the demographics of CACREP programs (Baggerly, Tan, Pichotta, & Warner, 2017). In 2014, statistics from the American Psychological Association (APA) and CACREP show 13.1% of students enrolled in CACREP accredited programs were African American; this compares to 58.6% of Euro-American students. African American faculty members teaching in CACREP accredited programs was an astonishingly low 7.35% compared to 72.76% of Euro-American faculty members (APA, 2014). An equitable learning environment can be challenging to achieve with these staggering statistics. Recruitment and retention of African American students and faculty in CACREP programs need to be revised. Many four-year universities have tackled issues of diversity by intentionally recruiting minority staff (Zeleke, Karayigit, & Myers-Brooks, 2018); the highest population of African American faculty (12.6%) are employed at public, four-year universities (Snyder, Sloane, Dunk, & Wiles, 2016).
The importance of multiculturalism and diversity amongst faculty, practitioners counselor educators and supervisors is essential for a multitude of reasons- it helps prepare students to interact with culturally diverse clients by modeling appropriate multiculturally competent behaviors, increases social justice and advocacy awareness, and potentially attract more African American students and staff to CACREP programs (Baggerly et al., 2017). This perspective is consistent with Bandura’s statement that direct observation, which would provide a significant amount of experience for an individual, is sufficient for behavioral transformation (Bandura (1986). In particular, having a multicultural team increases the diversity of accumulated knowledge, which allows African American students to enhance their positive interaction with elements of the environment. Implementing evidenced-based practices strategically focused on increasing diversity could lead to more mentoring opportunities for both faculty and students. As previously highlighted, positive relationships with faculty students can identify with is essential for the development of clinical skills and overall student satisfaction (Matthews, Barden, & Sherrell, 2018). Not only does diversity in hiring practices have the potential to increase mentorship capacity and student satisfaction, it has the potential to increase self-efficacy in African American students. As discussed in Matthews, Barden and Sherrell (2018) exposure to African American faculty increases self-efficacy in African American students by being an example of persistence in a predominantly Euro-centric field. Self-efficacy is grounded in the idea that observation is key in learning behaviors that create a framework for how individuals successfully complete outcomes.
African Americans in the Marriage and Family Therapy Field
African Americans, as well as other minorities have been severely underrepresented in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) (Withers, Reynolds, Reed, & Holtrop, 2017). Sude and Eubanks (2017) postulated African American students in the MFT field often face challenges that include, addressing and overcoming stigmas related to mental health, the impact of slavery on the institution of marriage and the overall underrepresentation in the counseling field. It is impossible to ignore the overwhelming impact the historical trauma of slavery has on African Americans and their views on marriage (Vaterlaus, Skogrand, Chaney, & Gahagan, 2017). During slavery, African Americans were denied the legal right to marry; legally slaves had no right to give consent, therefore the act of marriage was forced upon slaves for the purposes of procreation (Goring, 2018; Miller, 2018). This nontraditional method effectively created the narrative of what African Americans think about the “sacred union” of marriage (Sarich, Olivier, & Bales, 2016, p. 457).
In the post-slavery era, African Americans were still not granted the same freedoms as their Euro-American counterparts (Miller, 2018). Segregation and racism plagued the United States for years. During the 1960’s scholars used the blueprint of slavery as the repository for answers to the issues being faced by African American families (Quirk, Strokoff, Owen, France, & Bergen, 2014); ideas about the union of marriage started to shift; African Americans idolized the American dream and desired strong familial bonds. As with all marriages, issues start to arise; couples decide to seek outside assistance, for many, it is counseling. Due to the lack of African American therapists, most couples found themselves seeking help from their clergyman (Kugelmass, 2016; Smith, 2017; Wilmoth & Blaney, 2016). In the mid-to-late 1990’s, African Americans started to express more interest in the counseling field (Bayne & Branco, 2018). The influx of African American therapists was ideal for couples wanting assistance with marital issues from someone they identify as relatable.
The counseling field understood the impact adverse historical events had on the African American family and the resiliency it has built in order to thrive, the field also recognized a different approach was needed to address some of the limitations Euro-American therapists were experiencing when working with minority clients. Bayne and Branco (2018) highlight the increase African Americans have shown in the counseling discipline. The counseling field recognizes the importance of diversity as it relates to the therapist and client dynamic. This research lends to increasing the awareness of diversity as it relates to professionals working in the field. One of the core components of marriage and family therapy is to view the client from a systemic perspective; a client’s system includes their culture, race and ethnicity (Jordan & Seponski, 2018). In the early 90’s, Sue, Ivey and Pedersen (1996) felt it was essential to view clients from a multicultural lens by integrating a competency-based framework consistent with the culture and background of the client (Ivers, Johnson, Clarke, Newsome, & Barry, 2016). Sue and Sue (2008) placed emphasis on validating the life experiences of minority clients and appreciating cultural differences. Cultural diversity remains a frequent topic of discussion in the field but often falls short in diverse representation (Baima & Suede, 2020; Fietzer, Mitchell, & Ponterotto, 2018; Knudson-Martin, McDowell, & Bermudez, 2019; Niño Kissil, & Davey, 2016; Winston & Piercy, 2010; Wilkins, Whiting, Watson, Russon, & Moncrief, 2013; Wendt, Gone, & Nagata, 2014). The field boasts cultural diversity as it relates to client support but shows inconsistency in understanding and acknowledging how the lack of diversity impacts minority clinicians (Baima & Suede, 2020).
During the earlier part of 2000, a shift took place in the MFT field, diversity and multicultural competence were to be integrated into practice (Inman et al., 2004). The American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) felt retention and recruitment of minorities was an emerging trend in the profession (Chen, Austin, Hughes, & May, 2019; Inman, Meza, Brown, & Hargrove, 2004). A few years earlier, in 1998, AAMFT committed to illustrating ethnic diversity at conferences (Marshall & Wieling, 2000). Integrating diversity into practice revealed the underrepresentation of African Americans in MFT at every level. There are a limited number of African Americans in faculty positions, AAMFT approved supervisors and students; it is also seen in the literature (Chen et al., 2019; Harris-McKoy, 2017; Nichols, 2013). Quite a bit of the literature focusing on diversity addresses issues of sexual orientation, gender, spirituality and even socioeconomic status (Jones, Johnson, Wenglein, & Elshershaby 2019; McDowell, Brown, Cullen, & Duyn, 2013; McGeorge, Christi, Stone, & Thomas, 2016; Rock, Carlson & McGeorge, 2010; Zamboni & Zaid, 2017).
Increased literature in the areas of racial diversity, recruitment and retention of African Americans and training opportunities (Jones, Johnson, Wenglein, & Elshershaby, 2019; Zamboni & Zaid, 2017) to address cultural diversity in the MFT field are invaluable to promoting the profession. Ensuring faculty, supervisors, and students in the field are adequately trained to work with diverse individuals, not just clients send a message of acceptance (Zamboni & Zaid, 2017); it shows a willingness to have open and honest conversations that can ultimately lead to African Americans feeling more respected and welcomed in the field. The lack of diversity in the MFT field has not been researched as intensely as the lack of diversity in mental health counseling. Therefore, it is essential to give this topic a voice.
African Americans in Counselor Education and Supervision
Given the importance of diversity in counseling programs, it seems logical to take a look at multiculturalism and diversity in counselor education and supervision (CES) CACREP accredited doctoral programs. Counselors who want to continue to make an impact in the counseling field transition from practitioner to supervisor and mentor (Cartwright, Avent-Harris, Munsey, & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2018). CES continues to evolve; in more recent years, the role has become a distinct and separate field that requires a specific set of skills, tools, accountability and training; CES programs engage students at the highest level of defining the counselor professional identity (Adkison-Bradley, 2013; Grunhaus, Tuazon, Gonzalez, & Wagner, 2018). The primary function of a counselor educator and supervisor is to provide opportunities for students to learn an array of counseling knowledge and skills while being effective and supportive. The relationship is essential for orchestrating the involvement of the learner in achieving the goals of supervision (Cartwright et al., 2018). Counselor educators are an integral part of developing students that will promote the counseling field. They assist in maximizing student potential, intellectual, and personal growth, and academic performance. Counselor educators face the challenge of managing multiple roles and responsibilities (Henfield, Owens, & Witherspoon, 2010).
Counselor educators must also be aware of specific issues in the field, explore methods of addressing these issues, and recognize their own role for the future of the counseling profession (Grunhaus et al., 2018). A body of professional knowledge defines the roles of counselor educators. One of the main goals is that the educators’ match the individual needs of the student. Roles and responsibilities can be grouped into the following areas (Honderich & Llyod-Hazlett, 2015): instructing/advising, modelling, consult, mentor, monitor and evaluator. Instructing and advising includes helping student develop the necessary counseling skills. Both clinical supervision and counselor education focus on the relationship between the student and the professional counselor (Cartwright et al., 2018). Bernard and Goodyear (2014) define clinical supervision as, “the signature pedagogy of the mental health professions” (p. 2). The role of the counselor educator entails supervision, consultant, mentor, and instructor (Borders, 2019). The relationship between supervisor and supervisee should be open and grounded in honest communication-much like the student-teacher relationship. During the process, feedback is essential for the novice student to develop skills that will promote the counseling profession (Borders, 2019). One of the primary tenets of the counseling education and supervision (CES) field is to focus on the student’s developmental progression and growth. Counselor educators are tasked with being the gatekeepers of the counseling profession (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018; Testa & Sangganjanavanich, 2016). Being the gatekeeper of the profession means ensuring students are well prepared in a variety of facets to service clients and enrich the counseling profession. Preparation includes being able to work with diverse clients and colleagues.
Diversity in education is pivotal in creating a thriving academic environment; many postsecondary educational programs seek to ensure diversity is prevalent in students and faculty (Dollarhide et al., 2018). However, African American faculty and students often experience systemic racism in educational institutions similar to what is experienced in society (Haskins el al., 2016). One of the barriers experienced by African American students and faculty is lack of African American mentors in a predominantly Euro-American environment (Haskins et al., 2016). CACREP (2016) has standards requiring programs to make every effort to recruit and retain faculty from diverse backgrounds. However, there is limited literature explaining those recruitment and retention strategies (Pérez & Carney, 2018). Some research suggests the lack of African Americans in CES can be directly linked to the low representation of African Americans in counseling programs (Cartwright et al., 2018; Dollarhide et al., 2018). Lack of mentorship and low numbers of African American faculty and staff are exacerbated in counselor education and supervision (CES) programs (Cartwright et al., 2018; Pérez & Carney, 2018). The number of African Americans in doctoral programs juxtaposes the number of Euro-Americans in CES programs. In (2009), Protivnak and Foss reported only 12.1 percent of African Americans enrolled in CES programs; this is compared to an astonishing 74.5 percent of Euro-Americans enrolled in CES programs (Bhat, Pillay, & Hudson, 2012). Counselor educators can utilize their positions to voice the concerns of African American students who often feel unheard and are underrepresented in the counseling field, to administration.
The Association of Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) published a report in 2016 outlining best practices for faculty members seeking to enhance their professional identity in the field; the report touched on the following critical issues impacting the field- faculty diversity, faculty identity, and institutional culture (Wood et al., 2016; Pérez & Carney, 2018). Several research studies have highlighted the difficulty experienced by African Americans in CES programs (Bradley & Holcomb-McCoy, 2004; Brooks & Steen, 2010; Brown & Grohaus, 2019; Constantine, Smith, Redington, & Owens, 2008). The themes emerged from the research include, faculty reporting lack of tenure opportunities, invisibility, fewer opportunities to obtain tenure, lack of opportunities to present research and challenges with publishing research (Dollarhide et al., 2018). Students often experience feelings of inadequacy, microaggressions, lack of mentors and being overwhelmed with the desire to prove they are good enough (Haskins et al., 2016). African American faculty and staff also describe being viewed as the expert on multicultural issues and representatives of the entire “black community” (Henfield, Woo, &Washington, 2013, p. 125). Minoritized faculty and students are in a unique position where underrepresentation can directly impact academic success (Pérez & Carney, 2018); stressors such as discrimination and unequal expectations result in lower retention rates (Brown & Grohaus, 2019).
To comprehensively work with students, supervisees, counselor educators and supervisors, and professors are tasked with understanding the complex ways in which learning occurs. Learning theories are well-researched explanations that detail the learning process based on various perspectives. According to Malik (2016), learning theories are based on the following orientations: humanist, behaviorist, constructivist, cognitive and social cognitivist; these are identified as the foundation of adult learning. Throughout history, the term learning has taken on various definitions. Philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Confucius have historically defined learning in the context of nature and sensory perception (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). As Bandura (1986) notes, learning is an ongoing process that encapsulates observation, self-regulation and reciprocal determinism. For the purpose of this dissertation, the researcher will add to Bandura’s definition to include learning as the continuous process of obtaining knowledge (Bandura, 1986; Desjardins, Lans, & Ederer, 2016).
A counselor educator should always be aware of differences and be equipped to address them in a professional manner but also a manner that helps to strengthen the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee. A counselor educator is ethically responsible for ensuring a supervisee is competent and able to demonstrate professional and ethical behaviors (ACA, 2014). Programmatic requirements focus on the supervisor’s responsibility to ensure that supervisees are equipped to work ethically, creatively and effectively with clients coming from diverse backgrounds, but the field does not directly deal with the diversity in programs amongst colleagues and students and the impact it has on the success rate for both (Pérez & Carney, 2018). The research continues to demonstrate the growing need of mentorship in CES programs and its distinctive role in enhancing student and faculty retention, and successful completion of programs (Brown & Grohaus, 2019; Pérez & Carney, 2018). African American counselor educators, acting as mentors and supervisors, have seen a higher retention rate in African American CES students (Brown & Grohaus, 2019). Understanding the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American instructors allows counselor educators to provide a learning environment that is supportive, caring, encouraging and compassionate (Teixeira, 2017). Counselor educators acting in the mentor role can be intentionally encourage students to also take on the role as mentor as they continue in the profession. Understanding the experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American instructors allows counselor educators to provide a learning environment that is supportive, caring, encouraging and compassionate (Goodman, Morgan, Hodgson, & Caldwell, 2018). In the capacity of mentors, counselor educators can be intentional by encouraging students to take on the same role as they go further in the profession. Counselor educators and supervisors are at the core, clinicians; the lens in which they view the role of supervision is very similar to the way the role of client and therapist is viewed (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018).
Development of Professional Identity in CES
The counseling profession has struggled to establish a consistent and coherent professional identity that is uniform across all disciplines (Cureton & Davis, 2019). Various specializations within the field want their identities to be separate so the public can have an understanding of the populations being served (Hunt & Nichols, 2018). The profession overall wants to distinguish itself from school counseling, psychology and social work to represent the differences and distinctions in professional trainings (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018). Counselor educators and supervisors are seen as teachers, mentors and the gatekeepers of the profession (Lile, 2017); distinguishing itself from other disciplines in counseling is vital for individuals to understand how essential the CES role is in promoting the counseling field and helping to develop the next generation of counselors (Lile, 2017). Both CACREP and the American Counseling Association (ACA) place emphasis on ensuring leadership skills development is primary for those in supervisory positions (Woo, Storlie, & Baltric, 2016). The development of professional identity does not happen overnight, it is continuously nurtured in the academic setting. The development of professional identity is linked to how the individual views themselves in the profession and how they are perceived by colleagues (Dong, Campbell, & Vance, 2017). Research suggests professional identity is also directly linked to personal identity (Thacker & Diambra, 2019).
One of the most influential influences in the development of professional identity are faculty members who have direct interactions with students (Thacker & Diambra, 2019). Competence, self-awareness, and skill integration start to develop during the process of transitioning from scholar to practitioner (Woo, Storlie, & Baltric, 2016); students look to faculty as the example; at this stage, students and faculty are often entering into mentoring relationships. African American students who look to faculty to set these examples often find very few or no African American faculty present in CES programs (Lamar & Helm, 2017). The ACA codes of ethics mandates counselor educators to infuse diversity and multicultural topics into teaching to assist with the professional development of counselors (ACA, 2014). One of the charges of CES programs is cultivating diverse programs where all students feel a sense of inclusivity (Henfield, Washington, Rue, & Byrd, 2018); the continuous underrepresentation of African Americans in the CES field make it difficult to see diversity being put into practice and also makes it difficult for African Americans in CES to develop a professional identity (Jangha, Magyar-Russell, & O’Grady, 2018). As evidenced in the research, professional identity is shaped through interactions with individuals in the field who have advanced expertise and knowledge in the field; students also gravitate to mentors sharing similarities in race, gender, and ethnicity (Cureton et al., 2019; Mitchell & Shilingford, 2017; Jangha et al., 2018).
Understanding CACREP and COAMFTE Programs
The council for accreditation of counseling and related educational programs (CACREP) is the result of a marriage between the association for counselor education and supervision (ACES) and American personnel and guidance association (APGA) (CACREP, 2019). The accrediting body’s core mission is to develop and prepare students for the counseling profession; the accrediting body promotes a set of standards seeking to advance the counseling profession (D’Aniello & Fife, 2017). During the early years, CACREP created standards focusing on community counseling and mental health counseling (Bobby, 2013; Honderich & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2015). In 1990, the International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) and the Association of Counselor Education and Supervision joined forces and developed standards for CACREP to adopt (D’Aniello & Fife, 2017). Despite some trepidation and pushback from the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) and American Psychological Association (APA), MFT became the fifth area of specialization for CACREP (Merlin, Pagano, Zanone, & Newman, 2017). CACREP programs also include- clinical mental health, school counseling, career counseling, addiction counseling, clinical rehabilitation counseling, student affairs and college counseling and counselor education and supervision (CACREP, 2019).
CACREP is not the only accreditation body for the MFT field; the commission in accreditation for marriage and family therapy education (COAMFTE) established in 1975 created the first manual of standards for the MFT profession (COAMFTE, 2019). According to COAMFTE (2019) its mission is “to promote best practices for Marriage and Family Therapy educational programs through the establishment, review and revision of accreditation standards and policies, and the accreditation of graduate and post-graduate educational programs” (para. 1). Both CACREP and COAMFTE serve to ensure students are receiving a quality education and allows for legitimacy during the licensing process (Northey & Gehart, 2020). The council of higher education accreditation (CHEA) recognizes COAMFTE as “the only accrediting agency for graduate degree and clinical training programs in Marriage and Family Therapy in the United States and Canada since CHEA’s inception in 1997” (COAMFTE, 2019). It is essential to note both CACREP and COAMFTE can accredit an MFT program. As of the year 2020, Capella is the only university accredited by both bodies.
Obtaining accreditation for a counseling program is often seen as a badge of distinction, it shows prospective students and other stakeholders the rigor of educational standards, displays a commitment to strengthen professional identity and an overall commitment to promoting the counseling profession (Adkison-Bradley, 2013; Honderich & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2015; Lu, Smith, & Davis, 2018). As of 2020, there are 866 CACREP accredited counseling programs (CACREP, 2019); the breakdown is as follows:

1. 784 graduate counseling programs
2. 82 CES programs
3. 75 online counseling programs
   The number of HBCUs with CACREP accredited counseling programs is drastically smaller, out of 107 HBCUs, 19 have CACREP accredited counseling programs; out of the 19, six programs have mental health counseling, one program has both mental health counseling and CES (CACREP, 2019). At the time of this research there are no HBCUs with an MFT program (West & Moore, 2015; CACREP, 2019; COAMFTE, 2019). Students interested in attending an accredited MFT or CES must enroll into a primarily white institute (PWI). Both COAMFTE and CACREP stress the importance of diversity in curriculum standards and professional representation but research addressing the lack of MFT and CES programs at HBCUs is scant.
   Methodological Literature
   When researching or conducting a study, one of the main concerns of the researcher is, transferability; how applicable the results are in another context beyond the study (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The researcher also wants to know what implications the study will have in the context of the real world (van Manen, 2019). The researcher must identify an appropriate method best suited for the research question. Quantitative and qualitative methods of inquiry are both highly utilized in research (Maxwell, 2019), the researcher looks at a number of factors to determine which would best fit the proposed research. Quantitative and qualitative approaches are vastly different; quantitative research typically objective, deals with numerical values and statistical analysis (Clayton & Pike, 2017; Yilmaz, 2013). Quantitative research has a number of limitations. In particular, quantitative research prevents a researcher from gaining a deeper understanding of the context of the problem under study (Queirós, Faria & Almeida, 2017). In addition, it does not maximize the interaction between an investigator and a problem and reduces the flexibility of conducting exploratory analysis. In contrast, qualitative research seeks to understand behavior, relationships and the social construction of reality (Clayton & Pike, 2017). The qualitative approach to research has often been described as hard to define because of its focus on multiple variables and its interpretive nature (Yilmaz, 2013). An important limitation of qualitative research is also the need for the researcher to devote more time to exploring the problem under study. In addition, the qualitative approaches are less structured than the quantitative ones and are based on the researcher’s internal point of view in most cases (Queirós, Faria & Almeida, 2017).Quantitative research versus qualitative research has been heavily debated for years (Rutberg & Bouikidis, 2018); deciding between the two really comes down to the researcher’s personal philosophical assumptions and worldviews.
   When researching or conducting a study, one of the main concerns of the researcher is, transferability; how applicable the results are in another context beyond the study (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The researcher also wants to know what implications the study will have in the context of the real world (van Manen, 2019). The researcher must identify an appropriate method best suited for the research question. Quantitative and qualitative methods of inquiry are both highly utilized in research (Maxwell, 2019), the researcher looks at a number of factors to determine which would best fit the proposed research. Quantitative and qualitative approaches are vastly different; quantitative research typically objective, deals with numerical values and statistical analysis (Clayton & Pike, 2017; Yilmaz, 2013). In contrast, qualitative research seeks to understand behavior, relationships and the social construction of reality (Clayton & Pike, 2017). The qualitative approach to research has often been described as hard to define because of its focus on multiple variables and its interpretive nature (Yilmaz, 2013). Quantitative research versus qualitative research has been heavily debated for years (Rutberg & Bouikidis, 2018); deciding between the two really comes down to the researcher’s personal philosophical assumptions and worldviews.
   When the researcher wants to take a more subjective approach and understand a specific population without making generalizations, the qualitative approach is employed (Park & Park, 2016). Qualitative research has a history in the social sciences (Hood, 2016); allowing researchers to delve beyond the surface with research participants and get to the core of embodied experiences. If the focus of the study is on the lived experiences of the participants, a phenomenological study is best used, “phenomenology uses the familiar methodological principle that scientific knowledge begins with a fresh and unbiased description of its subject matter” (Wertz, 2005, p. 167); it is rooted in philosophical traditions. Phenomenology investigates a particular individual experience and the meaning of the experiences. Human beings often attach meanings to their life experiences based on interactions. This research design relies heavily on lengthy interviews with a carefully selected group of participants. The interview between the researcher and participant will look more like an informal conversation than an interrogation (Perera, 2020).
   Phenomenological inquiry typically follows a system during the methodological process (Moustakas, 1990; Spiegelberg, 1982): (a) identifying and investigating a specific phenomenon, (b) exploring the essence and patterns of the phenomenon, (c) examining relationships between essences, (d) understanding themes and interpreting meaning (Moustakas, 1990). Qualitative researchers often start with a general research question rather than a specific hypothesis. Extensive data is collected verbally from participants; the data is then organized to give it some coherence (Cypress, 2018). The researcher employed a phenomenological research design to examine the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Phenomenological qualitative allows the research to hear first-hand experiences and subjective views of the phenomena (Perera, 2020). The interviews will allow the researcher to hear expression; observe body language, and voice inflection (Moustakas, 1990; Moustakas, 1994; Saunders et al., 2018).
   The descriptive nature of phenomenological inquiry gives the researcher an opportunity to build a vivid picture of the participant experiences using rich, descriptive language. Once the interviews conclude, the researcher reflected on the data to analyze what themes emerge. Some have described data analysis as the most complicated phase in qualitative research (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018; Nowell, Norris, White, & Moules, 2017;). Unlike quantitative research, qualitative draw conclusions from the participant responses to open-ended questions, without careful preparation, the researcher draw conclusions based on their own bias (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018; Moustakas, 1994). Identifying patterns and drawing conclusions from verbal responses can be exasperating. To avoid some of the common errors, researchers utilizing phenomenological qualitative inquiry participate in thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is used to organize, and report themes found in the data (Nowell et al., 2017). The completion of the thematic analysis is written in narrative form for the audience to understand the essence of the phenomenon (Saunders et al., 2018). It is vital for the researcher to use rich, contextual descriptions when highlighting the individual participant stories. The researcher should use expressive language giving voice to the participants story (Moustakas, 1994).

Synthesis of the Research Findings

Research continues to show the importance of the student-teacher relationship, at the core, it is one of the most instrumental factors in student success (McGrath & Van Bergen, 2015; Claessens et al., 2016). The intricacies of this relationship are ever evolving with each individual changing throughout the course of the relationship. Each brings their background, past experiences, and knowledge into the relationship (Rytivaara & Freline, 2017). Both the student and teacher must consider the impact these have on the progress of the relationship. The student-teacher relationship is similar to a partnership; it is based on mutual respect, trustworthiness, reliability, and reciprocity (Quinlan, 2016). This specific partnership requires both parties be able to share their expertise, perspectives, and worldview; when culture, race, and ethnicity differ between it can be difficult for an organic connection to occur (Quinlan, 2016). It can be argued that the lack of a positive student-teacher interaction leads to ineffective learning.
The review of the literature implies the unpropitious relationship between African Americans and Euro-Americans continually impact their interactions (Geerlings, Thijs, & Verkuyten, 2017). When the relationship occurs in an academic setting, both individuals enter with preconceived notions and caution based on historical events. The research suggests faculty often make student academic predictions based on various factors such as gender, race, culture, socioeconomic status and ethnicity (Padmakumari & Chandrasegaran, 2018). Predictions made by the instructor lead to developing expectations of students’ academic abilities or lack of investment in a student based on assumptions. Students often internalize instructor expectations and seek out additional assistance and support. African American students prefer to seek help from instructors of color but find a limited number of minority faculty employed (Padmakumari & Chandrasegaran, 2018). The fragility of the relationship has the potential to negatively impact student success (Rebrean, 2017). A student’s perception of their teacher and the relationship is essential to creating and maintaining a thriving academic environment (Martin & Collie, 2018; Rebrean, 2017). When students feel respected and supported by their teacher, they feel free to make mistakes without judgment in the learning environment (Martin & Collie, 2018). Students are more open to feedback and do not view it as criticism.
In the postsecondary level, student success is not measured by standardized or achievement test; it is often assessed by subjective tasks such as discussion posts and research papers (Offstein & Chory, 2017). Quality of instruction is paramount to success in the postsecondary level; students must be receptive to the instructor, trust in their level of competence and be willing to engage (Quin, 2017). At this level, students view faculty as both instructors and mentors; when the relationship is stable, the student considers the instructor to be fully invested in their professional future (Chandrasegaran,2018). When faculty enters the role of mentor the connection tends to be life-long; it provides the student with a sense of emotional security, academic adjustment and an additional member of their support system. The research highlights the importance of the students’ desire to feel an organic connection with faculty members whom they share commonalities. Students envision a space where learning takes place freely- ideas and opinions are shared and valued, and independent thinking is encouraged (Xerri, Radford, K, & Shacklock, 2018).
Diversity in education remains a crucial area of importance. The number of African Americans enrolling in postsecondary level programs continues to slowly increase (Simmons, Lowery-Heart, Wahl, & McBride, 2013). Efforts such as Brown v. Board of Education and affirmative action opened many doors for African American students, however, inequalities in student enrollment and hiring minority faculty remain an issue (Marks & Reid, 2013). African American faculty members find it easier to connect with African American students (Johnson, 2018). The student-teacher bond in the relationship is unique; each understands the experience of being a minority in a world where racism and prejudice still exist. Both faculty and student feel more comfortable being their authentic selves and find a sense of belonging with one another (Allen, McLewis, Jones, & Harris, 2018). African American faculty appreciate the unique experiences of the African American student. The connection allows the faculty member to provide resources and support which can lead to program completion and academic success (Johnson, 2018).
As demonstrated by the research, the number of African American students enrolling in counseling programs continues to increase (Avent-Harris & Wong, 2018) but the research also shows this increase is at a slower pace than African Americans entering into post-secondary educational programs focused on other disciplines outside of counseling (Avent-Harris & Wong, 2018). African American students feel disconnected with faculty and peers due to lack of diversity (Bell, 2018), especially, when discussing issues surrounding race and diversity. In contrast, African American students and faculty feel they are viewed as the experts when issues of race and diversity are discussed ( Zamboni & Zaid, 2017) but they are also more than likely to experience microaggressions from Euro-American faculty and peers (Bell, 2018; Crockett, Elghorouhy, Popiolek, & Wummel, 2018). When working with faculty of color, students feel more supported; issues of diversity are addressed directly (Avent-Harris & Wong, 2018). The more specialized field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) continues to struggle with diversity and inclusion, in the last twenty years, COAMFTE and CACREP have focused attention on diversity and multicultural competence (Winston & Piercy, 2010). Despite the targeted attention to increase practices in diversity the literature reveals the focus primarily discuses therapists working with culturally diverse clients, or LGBQT clients; it fails to discuss culturally diversity with clinicians (McDowell, Brown, Cullen, & Duyn, 2013; Inman et al., 2004; Rock, Carlson & McGeorge, 2010; Zamboni & Zaid, 2017).
Several previous studies have advocated for the increase of multicultural competence in training programs (D’Anello & Fife, 2017; Deacon & Piercy, 2000; Green, 1998b; Northey & Gehart, 2020) but many fail to explore the impact that lack of diversity has on MFT students and the student-teacher relationship. This is evidenced by the above research studies highlighting the faculty-student relationship as a vital component of student success. Although the number of African American students in the marriage and family therapy (MFT) field have increased, trends in the number of students who remain interested in the field are low (Butler, 2015; COAMFTE, 2016). The proposed study seeks to give voice to a sensitive topic that continues to be a concern in the MFT. Conducting current research can shift focus on institutional policies, hiring practices, and retention; this can help to create successful strategies for future African American MFT students. The literature is limited in the area of MFT faculty diversity and its impact on MFT student achievement and retention.

Critique of Previous Research Methods
The research clearly outlines the importance of the student-teacher relationship and the positive impact it has on long-term academic success (Asikainen, Blomster, & Virtanen, 2018; Boucher, 2016; Evans, Butterworth, & Law, 2019; Lei, Cui, & Chiu, 2016; Richardson, 2019; Skea, 2017; Timmermans, van der Werf, Greetje, & Rubie-Davies, 2019; Xuan et al., 2019; Zee, de Jong, & Koomen 2017). Several phenomenological studies conducted have used the “Student-Teacher Relationship Scale” (STRS; Pianta, 2001), the STRS is a twenty-eight-item scale used to measure teacher relationship patterns, conflict, and student dependency (Decker et al., 2013). As of 2020, the STRS is recognized as one of the most utilized singular standardized and validated instruments used to assess how both teachers and students perceive the student-teacher relationship (Settanni, Longobardi, Sclavo, Fraire, & Prino, 2015; Fisher, Reynolds, & Sheehan, 2016; Tsigilis, Gregoriadis, Grammatikopoulos, & Zachopoulou, 2018). There are numerous limitations when using the STRS; one of the most notable limitation is its frequent use with primary age students (Milatz, Glüer, Harwardt-Heinecke, Kappler, & Ahnert, 2014; Wilkins, 2014). Students in primary grades require more structure and social-emotional support; the STRS sub scales are used to assess closeness, dependency and conflict (Milatz et al., 2014; Tsigilis, N, Gregoriadis, Grammatikopoulos, & Zachopoulou, 2018). After further review, it is important to highlight previous studies have questioned validity by reporting inconsistencies with the STRS. It has been labeled as ineffective and sometimes unreliable for measuring teacher’s perception (Koomen, Verschueren, van Schooten, Jak, & Pianta, 2012). Understanding the limitations of studies using the STRS may encourage researchers to find a more appropriate tool to assess student-instructor relationships at the post-secondary level.
Skipper and Douglas (2015) conducted a study to address some of the limitations found in studies that explore student-teacher relationships. One of the revelations was the lack of diverse students used in studies assessing student-teacher relationships. Several studies have been conducted on doctoral students to assess the importance of the student-teacher relationship, but the racial makeup of the participants was predominantly Euro-American (Christansen, Du, Fang, & Hirvela, 2018; Gearity, & Mertz, 2012). A study conducted by (Proctor and Truscott (2012) was one of the first to specifically explore attrition for African Americans in a doctoral program when looking at race, peer relations and student-teacher relations as variables. The researchers employed a traditional phenomenological approach to understand the lived experiences of the participants (Moustakas, 1994; Murshed & Zhang, 2016). Each participant shared that their instructors were Euro-American. One participant described an experience with a Euro-American advisor which immediately caused her to seek out another program. According to the participant, her faculty advisor stated, African Americans typically do not do well in these programs, especially those who have previously attended an Historically Black College or University (HBCU) (Proctor & Truscott, 2012). Each participant described their peers as upper to middle-class Euro-American; peer interactions were limited. Each participant engaged in three audio recorded face-to-face interviews. The research team consisted of three African Americans and two Euro-Americans. It is important to highlight the research team made a significant statement that at the time of their study, it was the only one that included African Americans on the research team; it would be difficult for this statement to be validated since some articles do not provide demographic information on the research team. The team addressed bias by meeting regularly to review the interview transcripts; other members of the team would fact check the transcripts to ensure accuracy. The studies limitation led the researcher to recruit only African American MTF students since they were previously underrepresented in past research.
One of the notable issues addressed by researchers are, the variables to assess the student-teacher relationship can often be too uncontrollable (Gehlbach, Brinkworth, & Harris, 2012; Quin, 2017); most studies focus on student success but fail to include the impact of interpersonal relationships (Sycarah, Reynolds, & Sheehan, 2015). A student in higher academia is often independent (Biga et al., 2013) and does not require constant monitoring from instructors; it would be helpful to understand what variables they use to determine student-teacher engagement and involvement (Settanni, Longobardi, Sclavo, Fraire, & Prino, 2015). It is difficult to determine how students in post-secondary education determine closeness, especially if the student attends a distance or blended-learning program. Several quantitative studies focusing on the student-teacher relationship in higher education settings reveal lack of faculty connection as one of the main contributing factors to leaving the program (Maleki et al., 2017). Participants described feeling “disconnected” and “discontent.” All participants indicate race played a major role in their dissatisfaction with the program. These are concrete studies but the limited number of qualitative studies addressing these issues make it difficult to understand how participants define terms such as connectivity, discontent and closeness. For this study, the researcher wanted rich, vivid descriptions of participant experiences. In order to achieve this the researcher chose to employ a phenomenological qualitative approach. Participants in the studied conducted by Inman, Meza, Brown and Hargrove, 2004) included sixty-one faculty members from accredited MFT programs and one hundred-twenty –three students; it was a mixture of master’s level and doctoral level students; this is a strong study but the researchers failed to distinguish which responses came from the masters or doctoral level students. The two assessments administered were: Multicultural Competency Checklist (MCC) (Ponterotto, Alexander, & Grieger, 1995) and the Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory-Revised (CCCI-R) (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Hernandez, 1991). The MCC is designed to assess multicultural development in counseling programs. The CCCI-R is a self-report measure used to assess a clinician’s cross-cultural skills (LaFromboise et al., 1991). Respondents also completed a demographic questionnaire to provide information on race, gender, age and number of multicultural courses completed. Approximately 80% of respondents felt their programs lacked adequate representation of minority students; 60% of faculty noticed their programs lacked faculty diversity. Both students and faculty reported limited interactions do very little to promote the student-teacher relationship (Inman et al., 2004). The limitations to note in the study is the respondents varied in racial and cultural make-up; the results cannot be used to generalize feelings of African American students in the MFT field.
Dobrotina and Erokhina (2016) conducted a qualitative study focused on teacher support strategies. Twelve undergraduate students participated in two-series of interviews; the students were broken down into the following categories: six Euro-American students, three Asian students, one Hispanic student, one African American student and one student whose race is unknown. The interview focused on teaching styles, and strategies instructors utilize to support students in academia. The study solely focused on students and teachers in historically black colleges and universities (HBCU’s) and urban areas, therefore, the results are not statistically generalizable to students that attend predominantly Euro-American schools (Cherng & Haplin, 2016). A study piloted by Piercy (2016) sought to look at the experiences of both current and alum MFT students to understand their experiences. Thematic analysis was used to survey sixty-eight participants, out of those sixty-eight, there were only three African American participants. According to Clarke and Braun (2013), the thematic analysis approach to qualitative research allows themes and patterns to be identified in the data. It is particularly helpful for the researcher that wants to explore themes from various participant experiences. The supervisor-supervisee relationship emerged as a key theme. A majority of the students report this being an essential component to success in their programs. A small number of students report lack of connection with faculty and peers; it was noted this was the overwhelming theme for the African American respondents (Piercy, 2016). Students also felt there was a lack of diverse perspectives.
Meaningful experiences are often subjective and individualized; this has the potential to create bias (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, Neville, & Alan, 2014). This presents a major limitation to the Piercy et al., (2016) study. Any distortion in the results of the research study is considered bias; it often stems from the researcher creating a personal agenda based on them being too closely connected to the study (Galdas, 2017). Any type of implicit bias distorts the validity and reliability of the research (Galdas, 2017; Roulston & Shelton, 2015). The small number of African American participants in the study continue to be indicative of the presenting issue of lack of diversity in the field. One of the noticeable limitations in most of the studies are the results of the studies are told through the lens of a non-African Americans which can lend to bias (Galdas, 2017). Exploratory studies, such as these, often use smaller sample sizes which can limit results in quantitative research (Watson, 2015); the studies should be replicated to see what the results would be with a larger sample size more representative of the population.
Summary
The research emphasizes how critical the student-teacher relationship is to academic success and retention. Positive teacher engagement assists students in acquiring the skills and knowledge needed to excel in their perspective field (Jha & Stearns, 2018; Maleki et al., 2017; Rodriguez & Huemmer, 2019). Based on the literature, the relationships developed with faculty at the post-secondary level is critical as the student transitions from student to a practitioner (Gulbekk& Byström, 2019). One of the main components of a successful student-teacher relationship is trust and mutual respect; the interactions, historically between African Americans and Euro-Americans have been negative. In the student-teacher relationship, African Americans are less likely to feel connected and supported by Euro-American faculty (Boucher, 2016). The research suggests Euro-American faculty have lower expectations of African American students and have little faith in their intellectual and academic abilities (Hotchkins, 2016; Jackson, Bryan & Larkin, 2016).
As the number of African Americans enrolling into post-secondary education programs continues to rise (Quinn, 2017), it becomes increasingly important to examine the impact lack of diversity has on retention, academic success and the development of professional identity. African American students often feel ostracized, and inferior; they find themselves seeking the approval of their Euro-American peers and faculty (Boucher, 2016). Feeling a sense of belonging and worth are two of the vital components needed by African American students at the post-secondary level to succeed (Larson, Pas, Bradshaw, Rosenberg, & Day-Vines, 2018). When looking at more specialized fields such as marriage and family therapy (MFT), we start to see the number of African American students and African American faculty become even smaller than those enrolled in mental health counseling programs (Matthews, Barden, & Sherrell, 2018). There is a need to explore the experiences of African American MFT students in order to understand their experiences of having limited access to African American MFT instructors. In the MFT field, previous studies conducted have assessed the therapist-client relationship or how non-minority clinicians can successfully work with minority couples but not how the lack of multicultural competence impacts the student-faculty relationship in existing MFT programs (Harris-McKoy, Guiterrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017; Knudson-Martin, McDowell, & Bermudez, 2019; Wittenborn, Blow, Holtrop, & Parra-Cardona, 2019); there remains a gap in the research that explicitly looks at this phenomenon. Chapter two took an extensive look at what the literature says about African Americans in post-secondary education, African Americans in CES and chapter two also discussed the limited research done on African Americans in the MFT field. In chapter three, we will take an in-depth look at methodology and research design used to answer the research question: What are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors.

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
African Americans and the lack of diversity in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT) has been one of the least researched areas (Harris-McKoy, Guitierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017) despite the slow increase of African American students enrolling into MFT programs over the past ten-years (COAMFTE, 2017; O’Brien & Rgazio-DiGillio, 2016). In order to give a voice to these students who have not had an opportunity to have their stories told, the researcher opted to use phenomenology to understand their lived experiences (Moustakas, 1994). The research methodology should give the reader an in-depth, systematic look at how the researcher attempted to address the current gap in the literature (Hood, 2016). Research methodology can be complex and involve many layers; the researcher looks at the problem and the underlying reason for picking a specific method or technique over another (Boesten, 2017). Moustakas (1990) viewed research as a process of self-discovery, intimate conversations between individuals aimed at understanding the human experience. As one of the founders of the humanistic psychology movement (Mihalache, 2019), Moustakas believed the researcher should have a direct connection with the phenomenon under investigation (Moustakas, 1990).The personal connection with the phenomenon is the start of developing the research question in heuristic inquiry (Moustakas, 1990).
In order to understand the lived experiences of participants, the research needs to ask questions relevant to the human experience (Cypress, 2018; Moustakas, 1990). As a formal method of inquiry, qualitative research illustrates the importance individuality and relationships play in establishing thoughts and behavior (Ghirotto, 2016); it is rooted in the philosophical foundations of interpretivism- the idea that multiple realities exist (Moustakas, 1990). It is essentially the core of conduct research with human subjects (Tetnowski, 2015). The term qualitative encompasses numerous data collection methods such as, ethnography, observations, in-depth interviewing, and interviewing (O’Neil & Koekemoer, 2016). Qualitative research does not analyze data formally using measurement and variables; it looks at the authentic interpretations of the human experience. The use of qualitative methods provides the participants an opportunity to verbalize their perspectives and feelings openly. Furthermore, the researcher to gains newer insight into the phenomenon being researched (Tetnowski, 2015).
Chapter three will look comprehensively at the methodology, purpose of the study, and research design used to answer the research question (O’Neil & Koekmoer, 2016), what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. In addition to explaining the methodology of the study and the researcher design, chapter three will also discuss the purpose of the study, the explanation of how the researcher developed the research question, the target population, data collection, data analysis, and the instruments used. Lastly, chapter three will provide an in-depth look at the protection of participants and the ethical considerations of the study.
Purpose of the Study
Not only is the purpose of this study is to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors, the purpose is also to address the gap in the research as it deals with African Americans in MFT and the lack of diversity in the MFT field. There is a disproportionate number of minority students in MFT programs and minority faculty teaching in these programs. In 2016, the Commission of Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) surveyed 124 accredited Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) programs; the self-reported data showed the following, 57% of master’s level MFT students were Euro-American, and 19% were African American. In doctoral level MFT programs, 50% of students were Euro-American and 20%, African American. Post-degree programs report 74% of Euro-American students and 13% African American students. The percentage of African American faculty teaching at these schools was less than 10% (COAMFTE, 2016).
A large amount of the research in the field addresses the lack of student diversity in counseling programs, but there is a gap in the literature that specifically addresses the lived experiences of African American students enrolled in MFT programs that have limited exposure to African American instructors. COAMFTE and CACREP create the standard by which MFT programs are accredited. Both COAMFTE and CACREP are committed to promoting inclusion and diversity in the MFT field, despite these efforts, minorities remain underrepresented. This research seeks to look at inclusion and diversity in COAMFTE and CACREP accredited MFT programs. It has the potential to provide current MFT programs information on practices that are reflective of students and faculty. Finally, it can be used as a tool to advocate for change in the recruitment process of minority faculty. Research in this area may provide information that can help to improve program administration and curriculum.
Research Question
When a researcher wants to make sense of the human experience, they will use the qualitative research method (Nielsen & Hyland, 2017). Qualitative inquiry starts with the researcher seeking to understand the meaning and lived experiences of the participants (Moustakas, 1994), in order to gain this level of understanding, the researcher must develop a question that is interrogative and reflective. A researcher often knows the phenomena they want to study; the initial curiosity can start from personal experience or intellectual curiosity. According to O’Brien, Ruddick, and Young (2016), a good qualitative research question is created when the researcher simply asks, “what do I want to know in this study?” (p. 31). The researcher then transitions to a question that allows participants to provide detailed, thick descriptions of human interactions as they have experienced it.
Qualitative research often emphasizes the relationship between the researcher and the phenomenon being studied (Murshed & Zhang, 2016). As a former MFT student, the researcher wanted to understand the experiences of African Americans in the field of marriage and family therapy (MFT); more specifically African American students with limited exposure to African American faculty teaching in COAMFTE accredited MFT programs. In order to narrow down such a broad topic, the researcher chose to interview African American students enrolled in MFT programs and their experiences or lack of experience with African American faculty. This curiosity led to the research question- What are the lived experiences of African American students currently enrolled in MFT programs that have limited exposure to African American instructors? The question also informs the audience of the researcher’s intent to use phenomenological qualitative to uncover the lived experiences of the participants.
A solid qualitative research question is clearly stated, inductive and non-linear (Kross & Giust, 2019). The researcher may start with a broad, overarching question then narrow down the focus to a more specific inquiry into the participant’s life; a poorly constructed research question has the potential to create issues in the subsequent stages of research (Kross & Giust, 2019). The research question guiding the study, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors, articulates the researcher’s desire to understand the collective experiences of the shared phenomenon between several individuals (Moustakas, 1994). It is essential to understand these collective experiences to promote diversity within the MFT field. The research question also stems from the researcher identifying a gap in the literature, specifically addressing this population (Wittenborn et al., 2019). The current research focuses heavily on diversity from the perspective of the client and gender disparity (Wittenborn et al., 2019). Allowing a broader audience to hear the unique stories of the participants can potentially contribute to the MFT field by increasing dialogue around race and diversity and promoting social change within the field. In addition to increasing awareness around issues of diversity, the research supports the direct link between a student’s self-efficacy and observation of what others in similar situations are able to accomplish (Bandura, 1977a; Plachowski, 2019).
Investigating the lived experiences of the participants continues beyond the main research question. The researcher must create interview questions that will allow the participants to share rich, textural data so the researcher can create an accurate picture of the shared phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994; Perera, 2020). The two interview questions for the study were (1) Describe your experience as an African American student in an MFT program. (2) Describe what your experiences have been like with your non-minority instructors. Moustakas (1994) postulates the importance of the researcher developing two broad, general, open-ended questions. Based on the participants’ responses, other open-ended questions may spontaneously develop during the interview (Moustakas, 1994). However, the two interview questions are crucial to how the participant has experienced the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994) and gives the participant the freedom to paint a vivid picture of the phenomenon for the interviewer.
The researcher seeks to infer and apply the participant experiences to the population or phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological qualitative research is appropriate for the study because it will describe the lived experiences of the participant and provide “a textural description of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon” (Moustakas, 1994, pg. 34). The researcher is not interested in predicting what methods would improve hiring practices of African American instructors, but rather to gain knowledge which would lead to the increase of retention rates of African American MFT students and African American instructors in COAMFTE accredited programs.
Research Design
Phenomenological qualitative research was used for the study. Phenomenology seeks to understand the lived experiences of participants and is a philosophical approach to research (Moustakas, 1990). Creating a standard definition of phenomenology can be difficult, it is dependent on the philosophical tradition. Edmund Husserl (1859– 1938) has been called the father of the phenomenological movement. Husserl, a German philosopher and mathematician, sought to understand how individuals can achieve pure consciousness while overcoming personal bias (Cypress, 2018); he focused on the meaning individuals’ places on their lived experiences. In research, these experiences can only be unraveled in one-to-one interactions between the researcher and participant (Hood, 2016). Phenomenology was a response to restore the connection between science and man (Englander, 2018). Husserl believed the concept of describing the lived experience is the essence of phenomenology. According to Moustakas (1994), “In phenomenological science, a relationship always exists between the external perception of natural objects and internal perceptions, memories, and judgments” (pg. 47). Phenomenology subjectively emphasizes understanding the individual experience.
Phenomenology places emphasis on understanding the human experience subjectively to interpret it. The researcher is seeking to interpret participant experiences to a generalized description or phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological qualitative research is appropriate for the study because it will describe the lived experiences of the participant and provide “a textural description of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon” (Moustakas, 1994, pg. 34). In qualitative research, one of the primary data collection methods is the one-to-one interview between the researcher and participant (Rodriguez & Smith, 2018). This method is used to gain understanding, perspective and the experiences of the participants as it relates to the research question. Qualitative interviewing requires a specific skill set on behalf of the interviewer (Yin, 2016). Personal interviews are used when more detailed information is required from a smaller number of participants. The selection of participants is directly related to the research question; this is known as purposive (Clearly, Horsfall, & Hayter, 2014).
It is significant to note that qualitative research is a broad term that encompasses phenomenology and hermeneutics (Yilmaz, 2014); one must also be aware of the research paradigms and underlying assumptions unique to each method. The epistemological assumption of qualitative research is interpretivism and constructivism (Else-Quest & Hyde, 2016) –the complexities of social phenomenon will not allow it to be reduced to a single variable. Qualitative research produces exploratory information which some in the scientific field have limited interest in (Oppong, 2014). In contrast, epistemologically, quantitative places emphasis on objectivism; social behaviors can be measured by using statistical data (Yilmaz, 2014). The researcher and participants are independent entities that can exist without influencing one another.
It is essential that the researcher understand the philosophical assumptions underlying the research they are presenting. Three paradigms lay the foundation for qualitative research- ontological, epistemology and axiology (Yilmaz, 2013). Epistemology seeks to reveal meaning and subjective experiences; it would be difficult for the researcher to understand experiences through analytical data (Flood, 2013). Meanings and experiences are constructed through engagement and understanding of culture. The researcher relies heavily on the direct verbiage of the client (Yilmaz, 2013). Ontology looks at the multiple realities that exist; participant experiences and perspectives can be grouped into themes (Serck-Hanssen, 2015). The researcher approaches the study with the understanding that multiple perspectives will arise from the participants, for example, limited exposure to African American MFT instructors may be the common experience, but the way it is expressed to the interviewer will change when each participant is interviewed. The individual participant experiences are reported in the results of the study (Moustakas, 1994). Each researcher understands that they have preconceived and a personal attachment to the study (Yilmaz, 2013, pg. 316); this is known as axiology.
The ontological position of the quantitative paradigm is a singular truth exists, the reality is objective and individualistic (Else-Quest & Hyde, 2016). The ontological position of qualitative inquiry is concerned with the nature of reality Crotty (2003) and the individual’s socially constructed composition of reality. The researcher and participant are inherently linked; this suggests the findings are mutually created within the context of the research and shapes the inquiry (Yilmaz, 2014). Axiological is the role the researcher’s values play in the research process (Heron & Reason, 1997), in qualitative research, it is understood a personal interest in the study is present. As previously discussed, the quantitative researcher is objective, stance-free and independent.
The differences that exist in the philosophical underpinnings have created distinctions in the language used to describe research methodology, understanding the role of the researcher, methodological approach and in some cases, funding sources (Yilmaz, 2014). One of the daunting aspects of qualitative research is its strong philosophical underpinnings (Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2013). Both quantitative and qualitative research is applicable in the social sciences arena, both also require a plan of action when using either approach to conduct research. Some researchers opt to do a mixed-method design to incorporate both methodological approaches. Positivism and interpretivism weigh in at opposite ends of the philosophical continuum. Often, researchers pragmatically approach research; the research method is dependent upon the research question (Murshed & Zhang, 2016).
The research question development starts with the investigator identifying specific incidents that spark curiosity and passion (Moustakas, 1990). The researcher, an African American woman that attended a dually accredited MFT program noticed the lack of African American faculty teaching MFT courses. The experiences in the program with faculty and peers led the researcher to wonder if the lack of diversity and connection with African American faculty impacted other students in a similar manner; this was an experience the researcher desired to know more about. The intensity of the personal experience draws the researcher down the proverbial rabbit hole, increasing the need to understand this ambiguous phenomenon. Despite the personal connection of the experience, the researcher needs to develop a more intimate immerse understanding of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1990). The development of the research design is a six-step process (Moustakas, 1990) each step strategically building upon one another. Moustakas (1990) delineated the following steps as core to the process of heuristic inquiry: (1) initial engagement (2) immersion (3) incubation (4) illumination (5) explication (6) creative synthesis. Initial engagement is taking the mystery of the phenomenon and turning it into a research question. The question should have the following elements, “the who (minority students), when, where (COAMFTE accredited programs), what (limited exposure), how and why (limited experiences) of the study” (Mantzoukas, 2008, p. 375). Developing a solid research question leads to becoming immersed fully in the inquiry process (Moustakas, 1990).
Full immersion becomes an intense process where the researcher transitions from the viewing the phenomenon externally to internally; Moustakas (1990) states, “people, places, meetings, readings, nature, all, offer possibilities for understanding the phenomenon” (Moustakas, 1990, pg. 28); this transformative experiences becomes the focus of the researcher’s existence. The researcher identifies participants or “co-researchers” (Moustakas, 1990, pg. 13) to interview, having conversations to discuss their experiences (Moustakas, 1990; 1994). Once participant interviews are complete, the researcher goes into a stage of incubation, retreating from the study in an attempt to absorb the data on a subconscious level (Rodriguez & Smith, 2018). Incubation is a vital step in absorbing the data, themes start to emerge, allowing the natural illumination of the hidden meanings in the data.
Illumination can be easily described as the researcher’s “ah-ha” moment (Mihalache, 2019; Moustakas, 1994); the moment when the researcher’s experience of the phenomenon opens up and new meaning and understanding of the phenomenon is allowed in. Now that the researcher has captured the essence of the phenomenon, it is their responsibility to explain the data in a way that gives the audience the true essence of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1990). Clarifying, reorganizing the data and reviewing the emerging themes is what Moustakas (1990) refers to as the explication process. A complete picture of the phenomenon is developed and the researcher’s self-exploration process during this time reveals how influential the uniqueness of the experience has been (Mihalache, 2019; Moustakas, 1990). The final step of the process is creative synthesis. The researcher has fully integrated the data and themes derived from the data analysis process. Next, the researcher communicates the essence of the human experiences in a creative form such as a narrative or story giving life to the uniqueness of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1990).
Since the human experience is complex and subjective, allowing participants to share their rich experiences gives meaning to the research (Moustakas, 1994). Highlighting the individual’s ability to present information in various ways in phenomenology is known as “modes of appearing” (Bevan, 2014, pg. 138). The researcher must be aware that an idea, memory, or emotion are all individualized experiences from different perspectives. To maintain neutrality, the researcher must enter into transcendental subjectivity (Cypress, 2018), abandoning all personal opinions and preconceived notions about the phenomena. Mitigating personal biases is not an easy task, Husserl emphasizes the practice of bracketing so the researcher can maintain objectivity throughout the research process (Lingis, 2017). When a researcher embarks upon research, they may need to define their position within the bounds of professional practices. The researchers must be transparent about bias, beliefs and preconceptions in the beginning, so the study is not impacted; this is known as epoche (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher employed two bracketing techniques to deal with any potential bias: (1) a mentor to review data (2) reflective journaling before and after the participant interviews (Sorsa, Kiikkala, & Astedt-Kurki, 2015).
Target Population and Sample
Once the researcher creates the research question and chooses the research design, the target population and sample are identified. The specification of the target population is essential for both quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research depends on a large number of participants not required to provide any real descriptive information (Asiamah et al., 2017). Qualitative research relies heavily on the participant sharing of rich, descriptive information about the phenomena (Asia et al., 2017); the information the researcher gathers directly from the participants lead to the credibility of the research study. It would be impossible for a researcher to interview the entire general population, doing so could put the credibility of the study at risk and would be an impossible task for the researcher to accomplish (Malterud, Siersma, & Guassora, 2016). In order to avoid this, the researcher must narrow the criteria down to the target population. A target population is a broad group of people whom the study applies to (Asiamah, Mensah, & Oteng-Abayie, 2017). After the researcher has narrowed down the target population, a sampling strategy should be devised. Sampling is a vital part of the research process; the sample is the subset of the larger target population that participated in the actual research study. The ontological position of the researcher is made clear in their choice of sample strategy (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton, 2015).
Population
In 2016, African Americans represented only 13% of students enrolled in COAMFTE accredited MFT programs. Enrollment numbers for African American students in COAMFTE programs have never risen above 20% (COAMFTE, 2016). The target population of the research study identified as African American MFT students currently enrolled in a COAMFTE accredited MFT program or a former MFT student that graduated from a COAMFTE accredited program in 2016 and beyond. The participants could be a masters or doctoral level student. The research study explicitly recruited from this population for the sample once a screening was completed to ensure the potential participant met the inclusion criteria.
Establishing the inclusion and exclusion criteria is an integral and standard part of the research process. Inclusion criteria are the “key features of the target population that the investigators will use to answer their research question” (Patino & Ferreira, 2018, p. 84). The inclusion criteria often include important demographic information such as age, gender, geographical location and ethnicity; all of these should be pertinent to the researcher’s study (Patino & Ferreira, 2018). The researcher must also be prepared to identify characteristics outside of the inclusion criteria that could potentially create unpropitious results. The researcher created the following inclusion criteria for the individual to participate in the study:

1. The student can be attending a brick and mortar university or an online program; it can also be a hybrid model.
2. The student must be attending or graduated from a COAMFTE accredited MFT program.
3. Participant can be a current master’s, doctoral level student or an alumnus that has graduated from an MFT program (two or fewer years). The potential participants should not be so far removed from the phenomenon that they leave out important details of their lived experiences (Amsbary & Powell, 2018).
4. The participant must identify as African American.
5. The participant must be 18 years of age or older.
6. The MFT program must be located within the United States.
   Creating the exclusion criteria is just as essential as creating the inclusion criteria for the validity of the study (Hoertel, Chevance, & Limosin, 2017). The researcher’s priority is to preserve the integrity of the study and use participants that can provide details of their experiences. Both inclusion and exclusion should be directly related to the study and carefully defined so the reader understands the overall inquiry. The researcher created the following exclusion criteria:
7. Individuals with a personal or professional relationship with the researcher (family, friends, colleagues) or;
8. Individuals enrolled at a COAMFTE MFT program outside of the United States.
9. Individuals attending an unaccredited MFT family.
10. Individuals who have graduated prior to 2016.

Sample
Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research is not concerned with counting opinions or numerical data; the primary concern is the depth and richness of the data derived from the participant experience (Ames et al., 2019). A laborious and well synthesized qualitative study typically uses smaller volumes of data to preserve the richness and depth of the participants’ experience of the phenomena (Ames et al., 2019). To achieve this goal, a researcher may employ various types of sampling strategies; probability and non-probability are the two most recognized in research (Simms et al., 2018). The researcher’s sampling technique is also aligned with the underlying paradigm (Skordaki & Bainbridge, 2018). Qualitative sampling usually involves participants in their natural setting and is directly related to the overall purpose of the study (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2017).
According to 2019 data from the United States Census Bureau, the estimated population was 328, 239, 532; African Americans made up 13.4% of the total population. When qualitative researchers seek out participants, they are seeking individuals with similar demographic qualities that have experienced the phenomenon under study (Sims et al., 2018). In reality, the number of people fitting the demographic criteria would be too massive for the researcher to interview, so the researcher must narrow down the population until they have a sample representative of the target population. The researcher must look at the number of African Americans MFT students currently enrolled in a COAMFTE accredited program or a graduate from 2016 and after. As of 2017, the Bureau of Labor and Statistics reports 508 African American students graduated with an MFT degree. In 2016, COAMFTE reported the total number of African American MFT students enrolled was 19% compared to 57% of Euro-American students and 20% in a doctoral MFT program compared to 50% of Euro-Americans enrolled.
Despite the overall low percentages of African Americans enrolled in MFT programs, the researcher must continue to narrow down the population. Using purposive nonprobability sampling was ideal because of its flexibility (van Rijinsoever, 2017); it allowed the researcher to engage with participants in a way where the participant was comfortable sharing their lived experiences. Traditionally, purposive sampling produces a smaller number of participants and heavily depends on the researcher’s intimate knowledge of the target population (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton, 2015). According to van Rijinsoever (2017), the use of purposive sampling is essential to reaching data saturation. In a phenomenological inquiry, there is a misconception that the sample size does not matter (Sim et al., 2018). A sample size too big may create redundancy, and a sample size too small may not achieve data saturation. The sample size for the study was ten African American MFT students. Phenomenological inquiry tends to use a smaller number of purposively selected participants sharing common experiences and also to avoid having excess superficial data (Moustakas, 1994). Studying a smaller number of participants more intensely provides meaningful results while decreasing the risk of introducing new concepts, which is also known as data saturation (Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989).
Research suggests theoretical data saturation is reached around the tenth interview (Tran, Porcher, Falissard, & Ravaud, 2016; van Rijnsoever, 2017), no new codes or themes emerge, and all relevant data have been discussed (Tran et al., 2016). Theoretical data saturation is concerned with the depth of the data, not the number of participants (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Research recommends that the ideal number of participants for phenomenological studies remain between six and twenty-five participants (Emmel, 2013; Polkinghornem 1989). Using a large number of participants can lead to an overabundance of data and can lead the researcher to overlook themes during the analysis and coding process (Ames, Glenton, & Lewin, 2019). Purposive sampling is guided by three principles- (1) the relationship between theory and data collection (2) flexibility throughout the research process (3) ongoing understanding of the phenomenon (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton, 2014). Emphasis is placed on gathering abundant amounts of detailed data from participants; this can lead to or provide insight into future purposive sampling. In addition to purposive sampling, the researcher used snowball sampling.
Snowball sampling is commonly done in qualitative research (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). The traditional definition of snowball sampling is when the researcher gains access to potential participants by asking a current participant to share contact information of someone meeting the inclusion criteria (Noy, 2008; Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). Snowball sampling was developed by Coleman and Goodman (1958; 1959; 1961) as a way to study the structure of social networksGoodman, 1961). The seminal works described snowball sampling as a nonprobability approach designed to reach hidden or difficult populations (Goodman, 1961). If a researcher is attempting to survey or study a hard to reach population, standard sampling methods may prove futile (Griffith, Morris, & Thakar, 2016). Snowball sampling has been coined repetitive but effective (Kirchher & Charles, 2018). Becker’s (1963) study of marijuana smokers was one of the first studies to employ snowball sampling as a sampling technique since then it has become common in qualitative research (Heckathorn, 2011). More recent research suggests snowball sampling should be used as a secondary means of sampling and not the primary method (Woodley & Lockard, 2016). At the end of the interviews, the researcher asked the participant to forward the recruitment flyer to individuals in their network meeting the inclusion criteria. The chosen sampling methods were appropriate because they allow for transferability.
Procedures
In qualitative inquiry, data refers to the process of gathering evidence on the phenomenon being investigated (Barrett & Twycross, 2018); the evidence is in the form of the participants accounts of the lived experience. Gathering the evidence takes places in the form of data collection, not only does data collection give the researcher the opportunity to access the participant’s lived experiences, it helps to create transferability so the research can be duplicated (Morse, 2015). In the procedures section we take a look at the steps the researcher used to conduct the study. The procedures section can best be described as a general roadmap (Scott-Morrell, 2018) created to guide the reader and explain the process used for participant selection, a step-by-step explanation of the data collection process, recording procedures and finally, the data analysis process.
Once the research question was developed, a site permission letter was submitted to the owner and administrator of Black Therapists Rock (BTR), a pre-identified group specifically targeted to African American clinicians on the social media platform, FaceBook (see Appendix A). After receiving the signed site permission letter from the owner and group administrator, the researcher submitted the required documentation to Capella University’s IRB and received approval. The next step in the process was to recruit participants. Permission was previously granted from BTR to post the recruitment flyer (see Appendix B) in the group once IRB approval was received. The flyer was posted in the group once a week for a total of five-weeks to gauge interest and provide information about the study to potential participants. The researcher’s contact information- name, email, and phone number were included on the flyer.
Potential participants had the option to contact the researcher using one of the methods listed on the flyer. Once the potential participant contacted the researcher to express interest, a screening was scheduled. During the screening process a demographic survey (see Appendix C) was used to make sure they met the inclusion criteria. If the potential participant met the inclusion criteria, the next step in the process was to schedule an interview. Prior to each interview, the participant was sent Capella’s Waiver of Documentation of Consent (see Appendix D), signed by the researcher. At the conclusion of the interview, the researcher emailed the participant a copy of the recruitment flyer to forward to their perspective networks. Each interview was recorded and transcribed by the researcher. After the transcribing the participant interviews, the audio recordings, and all data was stored in a locked cabinet only accessible by the researcher and will be stored for a period of seven years. At the end of the seven-year period, the researcher will identify a professional shredding company to destroy all of the data.
Participant Selection
Recruiting participants for research can often be challenging; recruitment has been described as invisible and spontaneous with no real direction (Reybold, Lammert, & Stribling, 2013). The researcher must identify effective recruitment procedures and rule out ineffective recruitment procedures, potentially leading to participants not meeting the specific inclusion criteria (Marks, Wilkes, Blythe, & Griffiths, 2017). Once the researcher received approval from Capella University’s institutional review board (IRB), participant selection started. Recruitment took place in approved social media group, Black Therapists Rock (BTR) whose target audience is African American therapists. The researcher had to gain approval from the group owner and administrator before IRB approval. The researcher posted the recruitment flyer in the group once a week for five weeks, a total of five times to get the required number of participants. Once the researcher received correspondence expressing interest from potential participants, a screening phone call was scheduled. During the initial call, the researcher asked questions from the demographic surver to see if the potential participant met the inclusion criteria.
Individuals who do not meet the selection criteria were thanked for their time and interest and dismissed from the study. Participants who met the selection criteria were asked to participate in the study. During the call, the researcher gathered the potential participants’ email address so the informed consent document could be sent before the scheduled interview; this allowed the potential participant to review the document and ask the researcher clarifying questions (Skordaki & Bainbridge, 2018). Interviews were scheduled for those who agreed to participate. Once the interview was completed, the researcher thanked the participant and offered them a five-dollar gift card to Starbucks as an incentive. The researcher also asked the participant to forward the recruitment flyer to their networks, this use of snowball sampling allowed the researcher to ask participants to share information about the study, along with contact information to individuals in their network that met the inclusion criteria.
Protection of Participants
Due to its use of human participants, qualitative research presents a unique set of challenges; the researcher must provide the audience with rich descriptions and details of the participant’s experience while maintaining their anonymity (Surmiak, 2018; Zagorac, 2016). The Belmont Report’s three principles: (1) respect (2) beneficence (3) justice guide ethical research involving human participants. One of the most vital components in research using humans is ensuring there are no harmful consequences to the participant (Roets, 2017). All ethics regulatory bodies require harm to be avoided at all costs when working with human research participants. Harm is a complex term to define in research; it is an umbrella word used to abbreviate compromising a person’s physical, emotional, and mental wellbeing (Hossain & Scott-Villiers, 2019).
Preventing harm starts with allowing the participant to be an autonomous being, having the ability to make the informed decision of participating in research (Miracle, 2016). Since the participant is often sharing personal information, the researcher must have specific safeguards in place. Protecting participants and ensuring their safety is at the forefront of the research process falls in line with the ethical principle of beneficence (Miracle, 2016). One of the primary safeguards put in place to protect the participant is the informed consent document. The informed consent document thoroughly explains the risks and benefits of the research study; the document gives the potential participant a choice to opt-out of the study (Nusbaum, Douglas, Damus, Paasche-Orlow, & Estrella-Luna, 2017. The informed consent document was written in non-technical language (Sil & Das, 2017). It contained the purpose of the study, contact information for the university’s internal review board (IRB), and, most importantly, explicitly stated all participation in the study is voluntary. Approval from Capella’s IRB was vital to the research; the IRB’s primary purpose is to ethically protect participants in clinical research (Miracle, 2016). In addition to the informed consent document and IRB approval, the researcher also provided contact information to an online site providing free therapy services by licensed clinicians if the participant was distressed during the interview process.
Twenty-four hours before the interview, an encrypted email was sent to the participant thanking them for their participation; attached to the email was the informed consent document. The email also confirmed the time, date, and location of the meeting. In the case the interview was scheduled to take place by Skype or phone, the participant received Capella’s “Waiver of Consent” document instead of the standard informed consent. The participant’s signature was not required but the document did require the researcher’s signature. The principle of justice in created by building trust between the researcher and the participant (Miracle, 2016). Encouraging this trust requires protection of the participant is maintained throughout the entire research process (Surmiak, 2018); fair and equitable treatment is provided to all participants. In order to preserve confidentiality, the participant’s identity was protected by assigning alphanumeric numbers (Wallace, Gaye, Shoush, & Burton, 2014). Once the interview was completed, the participant’s identity and any potentially identifying information were immediately removed. The researcher assigned alphanumeric identifiers that remained consistent throughout the research (Barber, Bailey, & Bagsby, 2015).
Monitoring the data generated from the research requires care and proper storage adhering to any university or standard protocols. The master list of code numbers and names will be kept in a secure and locked office at the researcher’s office. All digital files containing human subjects research data has been stored in password-protected files, the researcher used a password protected flash-drive to store documents (Shamoo & Schwartz, 2008). Sensitive data was encrypted, stored, and securely erased when appropriate (Samenow, 2012). Tapes and other media-supporting devices used for audio recordings have been stored in the same secure manner as paper records and erased as soon as information was transcribed and coded and is no longer needed for research. The researcher was the only party to transcribe the audio recorded interviews. In the event, the researcher has to change computers any records stored on the computer hard drive will be erased using commercial software applications designed to remove all data from the device. Once the seven-year time period to store data has expired, the researcher identified the following three NAID certified shredding companies responsible for the safe disposal of all data: (1) Patriot Shredding (2) PRO Shred Baltimore (3) Budget Shred.
Data Collection
In qualitative research data collection often takes place through unstructured or semistructured interviews (Barrett & Twycross, 2018). The unstructured or open interview is viewed as a free-flowing conversation between the interviewed and participant; the researcher typically has one question; it creates more of narrative inquiry (Barrett & Twycross, 2018). When a specific phenomenon is being studied, a semistructured interview is used. The semistructured interview allows also the participant allows some flexibility but tend to be more rigid in structure (Barrett & Twycross, 2018; Wheeldon, 2018). The researcher opted to use a semi-standardized (semistructured) approach; this allowed for more flexibility than a structured approach. Participants were asked four demographic questions and two open-ended, guiding interview questions. The interviews typically lasted between forty-five to sixty minutes with the researcher and participant engaging in the interview process. Open-ended questions were used to elicit more answers that are rich in detail (Berg, 2009). Semistructured is often referred to as a conversation-style interview process that is more natural (Holmes & Holmes, 2013). When spontaneous answers occur, the semistructured approach allows the interviewer to explore. For the researcher, using this design, was all about making a connection (Toledo-Pereyra, 2012). Homogeneous interviewees can provide pertinent information due to their experience with the phenomenon (Roy, Zvonkovic, Goldberg, Sharp, & LaRossa, 2015).
Twenty-four hours before the interview an email was sent to the participant thanking them for their participation in the study. In the email, the researcher confirmed the time, date and location of the meeting; for participants being interviewed by Skype, the researcher confirmed the participant’s email address and Skype credentials. The researcher also attached the informed consent document. Virtual participants received an email with the “Waiver of Consent” document attached. The researcher asked screening questions to ensure the participant was qualified to participate in the study. After scheduling the interview, the researcher completed the following steps during the data collection process:

1. The researcher identified a library and worked with the library staff to secure a reserved private room for in-person interviews.
2. The researcher had copies of the informed consent document readily available for participants to sign at the in-person interviews.
3. For in-person interviews, the participant was greeted by the researcher upon entering the room.
4. For Skype interviews, the participant was greeted once the connection was established.
5. Researcher thanked the participant for taking time out to participate in the study.
6. The participant was notified the researcher was going to begin audio recording.
7. Researcher started the audio recording device.
8. Researcher reviewed and explained the informed consent form prior to beginning the interview and answered any questions from the potential participant.
9. Researcher and participant completed the interview.
10. Researcher concluded the interview and asked the participant if they have any further questions. Researcher provided their contact information to the participant and let them know they are free to share with anyone that meets the inclusion criteria.
11. Researcher confirmed participant’s email address and reminded the participant they would receive a five-dollar Starbuck’s gift card as a thank you gift for their participation.
12. Researcher stopped the audio recording device.
13. Researcher again thanked the participant for their time.
    Once the interview was completed, the researcher was responsible for ensuring the data are kept safe and confidential. The Department of Health and Human (HHS) requires research records be maintained for a time period of seven-years (De Chasney, 2015; HHS, 2018); this includes copies of all research proposals, informed consent documents, interview notes, audio recording and copies of all correspondences between the IRB and the researcher. Records may be preserved in hard- copy, electronic or other media form, and must be accessible for audit purposes. Once data is analyzed, and study is complete, the data will be saved to a password- protected flash-drive and stored along with records for the completed study in the researcher’s office behind a locked door, in a locked filing cabinet that can only be accessed by the researcher. The researcher scrubbed the laptop using commercial software applications designed to remove all data from the device. The destruction of the research records was performed in a fashion that protects the confidentiality of the research subjects.
    Sensitive data was encrypted, stored, and securely erased when appropriate. Tapes and other media-supporting devices used for audio recordings have been stored in the same secure manner as paper records and erased as soon as the information was transcribed and coded. The researcher must maintain the records for seven years. After the seven years has expired, documents will be shredded, and data will be erased. The researcher will identify a company that holds a AAA certification from the National Association for Information Destruction.
    Data Analysis
    Data analysis is one of the most exciting yet challenging phases of qualitative research; for neophyte researchers, it can be intimidating (Malterud, 2012). Qualitative data can come in various forms- audio recordings, transcriptions, video recordings and observations, focus groups (Cypress, 2018); qualitative data is vast and can be summed up by using the term to describe non-numerical data (Sutton & Austin, 2015). According to Stake (2010), the use of multiple data sources lends credibility to answering the research question. Once data collection is completed, the researcher must take the time to sort through the data to interpret and analyze it (Cypress, 2018). Data collected in qualitative research is often transcribed; during this process, the researcher begins to code themes and patterns that emerge from the data (Cypress, 2018). The analysis of qualitative data can occur within the context of a specified theoretical framework (De Chesnay, 2014). Phenomenology was the design used for the research. The researcher will organize, analyze, and synthesize the data by using Moustaka’s (1994) steps of data analysis. Moustakas is known as one of the leading voices in phenomenology (Gautam, Mawn, & Beehler, 2018). Moustakas encourages researchers to delve into the experience of the participants in order to understand the context or environment they experience them in.
    Moustakas (1994) believed there were seven steps to adhere to for data analysis; the seven steps are:
14. Organize the data by reviewing the transcripts of the interviews.
15. Horizontalizing or list relevant or common expressions from the students.
16. Identify the meanings attached to the experiences;
17. The meaning units are grouped into thematic clusters; this helps to create core themes in the data; repetitive statements can be removed.
18. “Textural descriptions of the experience” (Moustakas, 1994, pg. 119) the researcher has captured the emotion attached to the experience described by the participant. For example, these could be themes of isolation and inadequacy.
19. The structural description, along with the textural description is used to create a broader description and understanding of the experiences African American students have with limited exposure to African American students.
20. From this synthesis of the data, the essence of the experiences emerges.
    Data collection took place using two methods, nine interviews were done by Skype and one in-person interview. Once all ten interviews were completed, the researcher transcribed all interviews, capturing minimal encouragers while shielding all participant’s personal information. Each participant was given an alphanumeric code to protect anonymity. Once the transcriptions fully transcribed, common expressions, significant statements, and phrases were highlighted, categorized, and placed in a separate document; Moustakas referred to this as horizontalizing (Moustakas, 1994). At this juncture, the researcher may need to take a step back to address any existing preconceived biases. Moustakas refers to this as epoche; “the first step of the phenomenological reduction process.” (Moustakas, 1994, pg. 84). Husserl identified epoche as the total invalidation of bias and preconceived notions (Moustakas, 1994; Schmitt, 1968). Moustakas challenged Husserl’s traditional meaning of epoche by suggesting that the researcher embrace bias but know how to handle bias by practicing bracketing and self-reflection (Moustakas, 1994).
    The next step was to identify the meanings attached to the participant experiences; the researcher began by coding and grouping together topics that are similar and different (Sutton & Austin, 2015). During initial coding or first-level coding, the researcher identified and grouped reoccurring themes into clusters; this helps the researcher comb through mass amounts of data and identify meanings and ideas (Sutton & Austin, 2015). Coding can be done by hand or the researcher can utilize qualitative software to assist in this process. The researcher will use Atlas TI or a similar electronic program to assist in data organization. This program has coding, linking and other features to assist with synthesizing information. In ongoing research, it is easier to utilize computer-based programs to track trends (Gubrium & Harper, 2013).
    Coding helps limit bias interpretation of the participants narrative and can increase reliability (Sutton & Austin, 2015). Unlike quantitative research, there is no statistical or numerical formula to check reliability and validity in qualitative research, there are ways to establish “truth in the findings” or trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, pg., 218). Trustworthiness and rigor in qualitative research are essential Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest the following four criteria: (1) credibility (2) dependability (3) transferability and (4) confirmability. The researcher ensured credibility by conducting the study using standard phenomenological qualitative data collection and data analysis procedures; reflective journaling and consistent debriefing with the researcher’s dissertation chair were employed to avoid bias. To ensure dependability, the researcher made sure all participant interviews were held in similar and stable conditions (Connelly, 2016); this included the researcher using the same confidential space for all Skype interviews and reserving a private room for the one in-person interview. The researcher took copious notes as well as audio recorded all participant interviews (Connelly, 2016).
    Transferability in qualitative research is equal to external validity or generalizability in quantitative research (Morse, 2015; Guba & Lincoln, 1989); the researcher seeks to achieve transferability when the research findings can apply to an alternative setting (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The researcher achieved this by ensuring a full account of the research design was thoroughly explained and the researcher used purposeful sampling to ensure the selected participants best represent the delimitations, limitations and the research design (Given, 2008). Confirmability in qualitative research is often tied to the reliability of the research. Given (2008) defines it as “an accurate means through which to verify the two basic goals of qualitative research: (1) to understand a phenomenon from the perspective of the research participants and (2) to understand the meanings people give to their experiences.” (pg. 2). Confirmability is concerned with the researcher’s ability to interpret the participants interpretation of events in their own voice; the data analysis is directly linked to the participants perceptions. To achieve confirmability, the researcher made sure to transcribe the participant interviews verbatim, allowing their lived experiences to be the highlight of the research.
    In direct contrast to quantitative researchers, qualitative researchers report findings rather than numerical results (Sutton & Austin, 2015). The thematic data analysis process concludes when the researcher has synthesized, integrated and linked all reoccurring themes across the data (De Chesney, 2014) and the themes captured from the data have a direct correlation to the research question (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018); the researcher is giving a voice to the experiences of the participants. Participant experiences are told from an organic point of view, and the reader understands the meanings ascribed to the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Once the data analysis is complete, the data is synthesized, summarized, and the reader has a clear understanding of the themes that emerged.
    Instruments
    In qualitative inquiry the researcher is often the instrument for data collection (Pezalla, Pettigrew, & Miller-Day, 2012); the qualitative interview process has often been described as a “collaborative enterprise” (Pezalla et al., 2012, p. 166) between researcher and participant. The researcher as an instrument is a phrase that has been questioned by researchers since the early ’80s; feminists’ scholars were skeptical of quantitative research methods because of its detachment from the research participants (David et al., 2018). Some researchers advocate against the idea of the researcher as the instrument because it allows the researcher and participant to forge a false bond which can lead to the participant feeling obligated to share the same thought process as the researcher (David, Hitchcock, Ragan, Brooks, & Starkey, 2018). The researcher should operate from an interpretive standpoint, making observations based on the human experience (David et al., 2018).
    The instruments for the study were the researcher and two open-ended, semistructured questions- (1) describe your experience as an African American student in an MFT program. (2) describe what your experiences have been like with your non-minority instructors. The informal interview style allowed the participants to offer vibrant, detailed descriptions of their experiences as African American MFT students ( Laudel & Bielick, 2019). Follow-up questions were asked if something came up in the interview requiring additional clarity; the researcher used these probing questions to gain additional information on the lived experiences of the participant. The researcher focused on body language, non-verbal cues and facial expressions in order to probe for more information. Qualitative researchers focus their writings on what the participants say they have experienced, not fiction; the researcher’s experience plays a valuable part in how the information provided by the participant is interpreted. One additional instrument used was the researcher’s bracketing technique of journaling. The researcher must acknowledge their close relationship to the topic and the emotional impact it can on the researcher, and it assists in increasing the rigor of the study (Pentland, Pentalnd, & Calantone, 2017). Reflective journaling is a part of the process of mentally preparing for the participant interview and decompressing post-interview. It allows the researcher to reflect upon the information discussed during the participant interview (Chan, & Fung, 2013). Reflective journaling also takes place during the beginning of the research process when the research problem and questions are being developed. Bracketing should be used throughout the study and not just during the data collection and data analysis phases of research (Chan, Fung, & Chien, 2013). It is essential for the researcher to practice bracketing techniques to mitigate any preconceived bias. Bracketing reduces the potential damage that can impact the research process and is regarded as an indication of scientific rigor in phenomenological qualitative inquiry (Sorsa, Kiikkala, & Astedt-Kurki, 2015). The researcher practiced by meeting regular with a mentor to review the data and journaling before and after each participant interview.
    The Role of the Researcher
    The researcher is an African American female who completed a COAMFTE and CACREP accredited marriage and family counseling/therapy program and is currently enrolled in a CACREP accredited counseling education and supervision (CES) program. The researcher has completed the following academic courses to aide in the successful completion of the proposed research study:
21. Survey of Research Methodology
22. Quantitative Methods Counseling Education Research
23. Advanced Qualitative Methods Counseling Education and Research
24. Statistics and Analysis in Counselor Education Research
    The researcher is also a marriage and family therapist and adjunct professor of psychology.
    Throughout the researcher’s MFT program, she was taught by only Euro-American faculty. While participating in the required residencies for the MFT program, there were no African American faculty representing the MFT program; the researcher often felt discouraged during these times. The preconceived notions are African American students will share the same feelings of discouragement, and disappointment; the assumption is at some point they felt alone in their journey. Reasons for bias can include the researcher not being mentally prepared to conduct the research, inappropriate interviewing techniques, and influencing participant answers (Bero, 2017). As the researcher, it is essential, to be honest, and engage in self-reflection; this allows both the researcher and the participant to address and isolate these assumptions. The idea is not to abandon any prior knowledge but to go into the process with an open mind. The occurrence of epoche happens when the researcher can address potential bias and preconceived notions that may arise in qualitative research (Moustakas, 1994)
    Guiding Interview Questions
    In qualitative research, one of the main data collection methods is the one-to-one interview between the researcher and participant (Ryan, Coughlan, & Cronin, 2009). This method is used to gain understanding, perspective and the experiences of the participants as it relates to the research question. Qualitative interviewing requires a specific skill set on behalf of the interviewer (Yin, 2016). A semistructured with open ended questions approach was used. Using a semistructured approach allowed for more flexibility than a structured approach; open-ended questions are used to illicit more answers that are rich in detail (Berg, 2009). When spontaneous answers occur, the semistructured approach allows the interviewer to explore the participant experience more in-depth. The guiding interview questions for the study were- (1) describe you experience as an African American student in an MFT program. (2) describe your experiences have been like with your non-minority instructors.
    Interviews were conducted using a combination of Skype and in person. Having visual contact with the participant allows the researcher an opportunity to interpret body language as well as non-verbal cues. During the interview, the interviewee often takes a stance on the issues they are being asked about; when stating their views, this is when they open-up to discuss their experiences (Lampropoulou & Myers, 2013). The interviewer must be prepared for the possibility that the participant is unable to expand the conversation or becomes non-cooperative. The researcher runs the risk of the interviewee providing inconsistent or contradictory information; evading certain questions or difficulty with comprehension. These types of responses can skew the data (Roulston, 2013).
    Ethical Considerations
    During the process of conducting the study, specific steps were taken to ensure the research was ethical and reliable. The researcher submitted an application and all research materials to Capella’s institutional review board (IRB) for review since human participants were being asked to share their personal experiences. Research and recruitment did not begin until Capella’s IRB granted approval. The IRB functions as a mandated ethics review committee; it protects human research subjects from harm (Clapp, Gleason, & Joffee. 2017; Sabati, 2018). Hardicore (2014) describes informed consent as “the very heart of ethical research practice” (pg. 564). Research ethics committees such as the IRB examine all relevant materials while weighing the risks and benefit of the proposed research (Gelling, 2016). Ethics in the realm of social sciences deal with the moral decisions’ individuals make. Ethics can be broadly conceptualized as the set of rules guiding the research process, and the decisions researchers make to ensure their study is trustworthy and ensures no harm is done to the participants (Edwards & Mauthner, 2012; Alexander, 2015).
    The American Counseling Association (ACA) has specific guidelines created for the counseling profession to adhere to that ensure the ethical protection of human research subjects. ACA (2014) explicitly states:
    G.1.a. Conducting Research Counselors plan, design, conduct, and report research in a manner that is consistent with pertinent ethical principles, federal and state laws, host institutional regulations, and scientific standards governing research.
    Adhering to the ACA codes of ethics was crucial to the rigor of the study. The researcher also followed Belmont’s ethical principles of respect, beneficence, and justice (Miracle, 2016). Maintaining anonymity throughout the research process was done by assigning alphanumeric codes; participant interviews were transcribed solely by the researcher, and the data has been stored in a confidential space only accessible by the researcher. One of the researcher’s primary goals during the study was to protect the rights, privacy, and dignity of participants by providing informed consent during the initial stages of contact. The informed consent document used provided the following information to the participant: background information on the study, any risks associated with participating, dissemination of the data, storage of the data, anonymity, and confidentiality (Weller, 2015). According to ACA (2014), the researcher must make it clear to the participant during the informed consent process that the participation in the research study is optional and withdrawing bears no consequences.
    During the informed consent process the researcher advised the participant of the option to remove themselves from the study without consequence (Jansen, 2014). Confidentiality was highlighted in the informed consent document, and a conversation was held with each participant, so there was a common understanding of confidentiality in terms of the study how it would be maintained (Dranseika et al., 2017). The researcher made the informed consent document accessible to virtual participants electronically and had a copy at the interview site for the face-to-face interview. To adhere to ACA codes of ethics, the informed consent document outlined the inclusion criteria, benefits. purpose of the study, and steps taken to protect the data. Confidentiality and anonymity will be kept by the deidentification system the researcher created to remove participants names and any other identifying information (Weller, 2015). The researcher transcribed all the interviews by hand; the data will be preserved for seven years appropriately discarded (Surkis & Read, 2015).
    The ethical considerations of qualitative research are often scrutinized because of the lack of numeric data. The qualitative approach is personal because it allows the researcher and participant to engage face-to-face contact, rather than an impersonal, and detached approach (Alexander, 2015). Ethical complications and dilemmas are a part of the process and cannot be adequately anticipated; they usually emerge post-interview. During the interview process, researchers must be careful not to cross boundaries by overlapping roles and relationships (Turner & Webb, 2014).
    Ethical decisions are made throughout the research process; this includes research design, data analysis, data gathering, and the final report (Alexander, 2015). The study’s target population was African American students currently enrolled in COAMFTE accredited MFT programs, or African Americans who have graduated from a COAMFTE accredited MFT program after 2016. It is important to note that the identified population is not vulnerable because they can knowledgeably provide informed consent. A vulnerable population includes- children, social or economically disadvantaged persons, prisoners, and individuals diagnosed with mental disorders (Kästner et al., 2015). When seeking potential participants, the researcher is required to provide information about the research; this allows individuals to make an informed decision about participation (Dranseika et al., 2017). It is important to delineate between gaining access to participants and consent. One of the primary concerns is that participants are not coerced into participating (Bhupathi & Ravi, 2017). The researcher posted the recruitment flyer without any coercion; all potential participants contacted the researcher on their own and were treated equally.
    It was important for the researcher to practice neutrality during the process. In recent years, ethical committees have requested copies of forms signed by participants to ensure informed consent has been obtained. Obtaining informed consent at the beginning of the project does not excuse the researcher from periodically revisiting it to make sure the participant and researcher are working collaboratively to promote ethical behavior (Bhupathi & Ravi, 2017). The researcher has retained copies of the informed consent documents in a safe and ethical manner. The researcher mitigated risk by screening potential participants using inclusion and exclusion criteria. The participants for this study attended universities unaffiliated with the researcher and had no personal relationship or connection with the researcher. The personal nature of the interviews has the potential to forge an imbalanced relationship. Griffiths (2008) suggests, “the nature of the power imbalance between the two parties and the way the relationship affects the participants psychologically, emotionally and personally” (p. 353).
    Summary
    In summary, it is essential to understand one of the primary purposes of research is to provide answers to the unknown and achieve new insights into a specific phenomenon (Fletcher, 2017). Each researcher has a different reason for developing their specific research question; this includes identifying the underlying meanings, assumptions, and techniques used to answer the research question (Fletcher, 2017; Lai, 2018). Despite the individual approach to research, there are some fundamental steps the researcher must take to answer the research question. Those steps include identifying the research methodology, data collection, data analysis, and conducting research in an ethical manner that prevents harming the participants.
    In chapter three, the researcher provided an in-depth overview of the research methodology chosen to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT Students with Limited Exposure to African American MFT Instructors. To understand the lived experiences of the phenomenon, the researcher opted to use a phenomenological qualitative approach. Qualitative researchers are looking for the pure essences of the participant’s experience (Cypress, 2018); this is often found in using the interview method to collect data from participants (Cypress, 2018; Willis, Sullivan-Bolyai, Knafl, & Cohen, 2016). Since the researcher was not concerned with numerical data and statistical generalizability, a nonprobability, purposive sampling method was used. The number of participants interviewed was ten; in order to ensure theoretical data saturation, it was important for the researcher to stay true to the qualitative method of inquiry by interviewing a smaller number of participants (Ames, Glenton, & Lewin, 2019; Moustakas, 1994).
    Due to the researcher’s personal experience with the research question, journaling was used during the data collection and data analysis process as a form of disengagement and depersonalization (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher transcribed the data and coded for themes through the process of horizontalization (Moustakas, 1994). Once the researcher completed this step, significant statements, phrases, and words were highlighted and coded allowing the researcher to write a textual description of the participants’ experience (Moustakas, 1994). Although Moustakas encourages disengagement by the use of bracketing, it is customary for the researcher to write a reflection on the data collection process and how their personal lived experiences led them to research the specific phenomenon (Dodgson, 2017). Moustakas adds a depth of structure and personalization to the data analysis process, for the novice researcher, this can be helpful to ease the angst surrounding identifying the broader philosophical underpinnings leading to the research.
    Data can be left up to interpretation since the primary focus is on the experience of the participants (Dodgson, 2017); emphasis must be placed on the researcher to demonstrate rigor during the process. Once the analysis of the data is complete, the researcher must be able to present the results in a clear, concise, and systematic way. Chapter four will discuss the results of the study based on the ten semistructured participant interviews conducted. An in-depth look at the themes emerging from the data as a result of following Moustakas’s data analysis process will also be discussed. Because the researcher’s personal experience is the catalyst for phenomenological inquiry, chapter four will examine the researcher’s personal relationship to the study as an African American former MFT student with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors.
    CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

The purpose of this qualitative study is to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors and to address the gap in the literature explicitly looking at this population (Harris-McKoy, Guiterrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017; Knudson-Martin, McDowell, & Bermudez, 2019; Wittenborn, Blow, Holtrop, & Parra-Cardona, 2019). Data analysis was done using Moustakas (1994) seven steps of data analysis. According to Moustakas (1994), the significance of a human being’s lived experience is one of the most powerful tools in understanding human consciousness and intentionality. Phenomenological inquiry allows the researcher and participant to be co-authors in the research process (Moustakas, 1994). The interactions between the researcher and participant are authentic and organic; in these interactions, the researcher is creating a new representation of the phenomenon and renouncing the previous reality (Husserl, 1970). During the investigative process, the researcher goes through the process of abandoning their personal connection to the phenomenon and viewing it in its pure sense; Husserl (2001) described the process as transcendental subjectivity.
Moustakas’(1994) data analysis steps were also used by the researcher to ensure the results produced were accurate and meaningful. By employing Husserl’s (1970) concept of epoche, also known as bracketing, the researcher started the process of setting aside their experience with the phenomenon to examine it from a different perspective (Moustakas, 1994). The subjective nature of qualitative research can be challenging, so the researcher must concisely present the data informing readers how interpretations from the raw data were made (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018). It is easy for the researcher to become overwhelmed with the amount of data collected. In order to provide structure and ensure the data is logical, the researcher analyzes the data by reviewing the audiotape and transcribing the participant interviews. Significant statements and words of how the participant experienced the phenomenon are highlighted (Moustakas, 1994) and grouped into themes (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018). The researcher uses the themes to construct a rich textural description of the participant experience (Moustakas, 1994). Presenting qualitative data can be challenging, especially to the novice researcher; there is no statistical formula to use and no standard format (Elliot, 2018). In chapter four, the researcher will give an overview of the study and their personal relationship to the research. Next, the researcher will describe the sample by presenting the demographic data of the participants. The research methodology applied to the data analysis will be discussed in-depth, followed by the presentation of data using themes and interview statements directly from the participant.
Introduction: The Study and the Researcher
It is easy to underestimate the role of the researcher in qualitative inquiry; the researcher must maintain a voice of subjectivity while honoring the voices of the participants and eliminating bias (Probst, 2016). In qualitative inquiry, the researcher identifies a personal or professional issue they find important enough to research; this usually happens with a process called, reflexivity (Probst, 2016). Through the eyes of the researcher, the audience has a clear understanding of the development of the research and the underlying philosophical underpinnings leading to researching the phenomena (Carol & Messman, 2018). Due to the personal nature of qualitative research, there are reflective questions the researcher needs to ask, the most essential question is, how has the researcher’s personal history and background led to interest in the topic.
I am an African American woman who is a graduate of a CACREP and COAMFTE accredited MFT program and currently enrolled in a CACREP accredited CES program. I wanted to understand the lived experiences of African American MFT students who have limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. The desire to understand this phenomenon came from my personal experience as an MFT student taught only by Euro-American MFT instructors during my tenure in the program. I wanted to understand the impact limited or non-existent interactions with African American MFT instructors would have on African American students’ self-efficacy. Research indicates vicarious learning experiences from faculty who share the same racial and ethnic background lend to the success of African American students in post-secondary education (Capa-Aydin, Uzuntiryaki-Kondakci, & Ceylandag, 2018; Truong, Museus, & McGuire, 2016). Since the beginning of the process, the researcher was aware of their personal connection to the research topic could potentially lead to bias. Practicing reflexivity was used as a way to objectively capture any personal judgment and bias.
Reflexivity can be defined as active self-reflection during the research process. It is the capacity for the researcher to acknowledge how their own experiences inform the outcome of the research (Råheim et al., 2016). During the reflexivity process, the researcher should be aware of how personal history informs everything from the participant interview to the transcribing of the participant interviews (Nilson, 2017). Reflexivity is complicated and multilayered; it easy for the novice researcher to feel constrained by the idea and easily reject it for fear of contaminating the research (Nilson, 2017). It is essential the researcher understands how reflexivity ultimately aides in establishing credibility and rigor while helping the researcher question and interpret their own involvement in the process (Shaw, 2019); this became especially important during the interview process. The interview process is an area where the researcher’s bias can unintentionally be exposed, to avoid this, I used journaling as a method of bracketing. Journaling was done at the start and at the conclusion of each participant interview. Journaling also helped me to document the experiences of the participant interviews.
The process of establishing rigor of the data collection instrument was also done by field testing the interview questions. Field testing helps assess the risk level and establish credibility by using experts in the field (Delmas & Aragon-Correa, 2016). The field of experts used were three marriage and family therapists who are colleagues. Each field expert identified as African American; this was to mimic the potential participants of the study. Each field expert reviewed the questions to provide feedback about any potential issues that could arise in the field during the study. The questions were also reviewed to determine the appropriateness and how they relate to the potential participants. The dissertation chair also reviewed the interview questions for additional input. All individuals involved in the field-testing process are considered subject matter experts; none were participants in the actual study. Ultimately, field testing is another measure used to prevent bias and ambiguity during the research process. Taking the steps to minimize personal bias is one of the most ethically responsible measures the researcher must take since there is such a personal connection to the study (Evans, Edwards, Watson et al., 2007).
The theoretical lens used for this study is feminist theory. Ferguson (2017) indicates feminist theory is not just the study of women but also the study of the world through critical intersectional views. Despite significant differences, most feminist theory aspects are reliably suspicious of dualistic thoughts, mostly oriented towards fluid processes of emergence instead of static entities (Bell, Meriläinen, Taylor, & Tienari, 2019). Ferguson (2017) indicates that dualistic thinking creates hierarchies. As such, one factor in the structure attains dominance over the other. The problem is that the process tends to naturalize the existing power associations and render them hard to challenge. Feminist thinking is also aligned with political and intellectual organizations. The theory’s core tenants are equality, freedom, and justice (Bell et al., 2019). As it relates to this study, the lens of feminist theory helps understand the need for equality among African American MTF students, especially their limited interactions with African American instructors in an academic setting. Feminist theory is a change-oriented scholarly theory that challenges oppression and works toward attaining justice (Ferguson, 2017). All the evidence indicated reveals that the feminist theory would be the most useful lens in understanding the study’s subject.
My personal experiences of limited interactions with African American MFT’s have continued post-graduation. During the past five years, I have been seeing clients in a private practice setting; I am the only African American MFT in the practice. The practice is a teaching practice allowing interns to gain hours for practicum, internship, and licensure. During my time at the practice, I encountered one MFT intern, a Euro-American male. Several MFT students have interviewed me, one common statement during those interviews is the lack of African American instructors and AAMFT approved supervisors; these conversations aligned with my personal thoughts about the lack of representation in the MFT field. During the research process, it would be impossible for me not to acknowledge the experiences leading up to the research process; acknowledging these feelings enabled me to be open to hearing and understanding the lived experiences of the phenomena, not attaching meanings to their experiences and allowing their stories to be told through the rich descriptions derived from the data (Cypress, 2018).
Description of the Sample
In order to provide the reader with a rich, vivid picture of the participants, the researcher will provide a demographic description of the sample. It would be impossible to interview every African American MFT student fitting the inclusion criteria in the population. In following Moustakas’ approach to phenomenological inquiry, the sample size was narrowed down to ten participants (Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989) which allowed the researcher to gain rich-textured information relevant to the phenomena being studied (Vasileiou, Barnett, Thorpe, & Young, 2018). With the ten participants, data saturation was reached. Moustakas (1994) suggests data saturation occurs when no new themes emerge from the data. Through the use of purposive sampling the researcher found participants with common characteristics and that met the inclusion criteria. The researcher recruited participants from a group specifically designed for African American clinicians on the social media site, FaceBook. A total of ten women were interviewed; it is important to note, the study was not gender specific but only women responded to the inquiry.
All participants met the following inclusion criteria: (1) 18 years of age and older (2) attending an MFT program in the U.S. (3) identify as African American (4) the student can be attending a brick and mortar university or an online program; it can also be a hybrid model (5) attending or graduated from a COAMFTE accredited MFT program (6) Participant can be a current master’s, doctoral level student or an alumnus that has graduated from an MFT program (two or fewer years). The participants ranged in ages from 25-62. Three people expressed interest but did not meet the inclusion criteria; one individual graduated prior to 2016 and the other two individuals attended unaccredited programs. The following was the exclusion criteria for the study: (1) individuals with a personal or professional relationship with the researcher (2) individuals enrolled at a COAMFTE MFT program outside of the United States (3) individuals attending an unaccredited MFT program (4) individuals who have graduated prior to 2016.
One hundred percent of the participants identified as African American, but five of the participants preferred to use the term Black opposed to African American; one participant preferred to use the term Afro-Caribbean to describer herself. Every participant met the requirement of being currently enrolled in a COAMFTE accredited MFT program or was a former student who graduated after 2016 from a COAMFTE accredited MFT program. Participants were not limited to a specific school setting; seven out of the ten participants attended an online program versus a brick and mortar program. A little under 35% of the participants were in the first half of their MFT program, meaning they had taken ten or less classes to fulfill the requirements of the program; the remaining participants were close to completing the requirements or their specific program or in the practicum or internship stages. Table 1 below provides an illustration of the demographic information of the research participants.
Table 1
Summary of Participants (N=10)
Participant Age Gender Ethnicity Race Current Status in Program
1 28 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Graduate of COAMFTE Master’s program
2 53 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
3 39 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Graduate of COAMFTE Doctoral program.
4 43 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
5 33 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
6 25 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
7 31 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
8 43 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program
9 37 Female Non-Hispanic/ Jamaican African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Doctoral program
10 62 Female Non-Hispanic African American or Black Enrolled in a COAMFTE Master’s program

Protection of the Participants
To maintain the participants’ protection, the researcher followed the three ethical principles, as highlighted in the Belmont Report. They include (1) principle of respects of persons (2) principle of beneficence (3) principle of justice. Respect for persons refers to one of the primary principles of study. In this regard, it acknowledges that an individual is autonomous, distinct, and free (Romm, 2018). Respect for a person can also be translated to mean that one identifies each individual as having a right and capability to make their own decisions, making sure that dignity is acknowledged. On another note, the principle of beneficence is a concept that is mostly used in research ethics, indicating that researchers ought to be aware of the study participants’ welfare as an objective of any clinical trial or other research (Romm, 2018). In this study, the principle of justice means that the questions to be posed to participants ought to be relevant to the communities taking part in it.
Each participant was provided an electronic copy of the informed consent document. The principle of respect to persons explicitly states that participants should provide their informed consent before participating in research (Roets, 2017). Before the start of the interview, each participant provided verbal consent. Out of the ten participants, there was one face-to-face interview; the remaining nine interviews were done using Skype. The face-to-face participant signed a copy of the informed consent document. The other nine participants received their informed consent documents via email. Before the start of each participant interview, the informed consent document was reviewed. The consent form template is attached in the appendices as appendix A. The informed consent document guaranteed the participant’s anonymity; it explained the research topic, provided the researcher’s contact information, and clearly states participation in the study is voluntary. All these activities were in line with the principle of beneficence that highlight the purpose and benefits of the study.
Non-maleficence was also observed as a critical principle of ensuring that the study did not cause harm to the participants. The interview spaces were well maintained; all the participants were safe and comfortable. Participant confidentiality was maintained throughout the entire process. The participants were assigned an alpha-numeric identifier to fulfill one of the principles of the Belmont Report, respect. The process of using alpha-numeric identifiers meant that participants were handled as autonomous agents. The administrator of the social media group Black Therapists Rock was not notified of any group member participation. To ensure truth and fairness throughout the study, all the participants were allocated the same amount of time to provide their responses. The sampling process used was convenient and helped gather relevant information from the African American MTF students as an integral part of the study.
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis
Data analysis is one of the most complex yet intriguing steps in qualitative research (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018; Sutton & Austin, 2015). The researcher must review and dissect the data collected from participants and identify themes that emerge from the data. Not only is the researcher attempting to access information from participants, the researcher is seeking to convey a story from the data. A phenomenological qualitative approach was used to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American students currently enrolled in MFT programs with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. The researcher wanted to explore the human essences of the participants; truly understanding their experiences. In phenomenological qualitative, the most commonly used method to gather data is the semistructured interview; Moustakas (1994) also referred to this as the phenomenological interview. The phenomenological interview method of data collection is an informal yet interactive and collaborative conversation between the researcher and participant. Unlike other approaches to inquiry, the phenomenological qualitative approach has structured methods of analysis the researcher must complete (Moustakas, 1994).
Qualitative inquiry starts with the researcher fully disclosing their personal interest and experience with the phenomenon; the goal is to reduce bias and focus solely on the participants (Moustakas, 1994). Journaling was used as a bracketing method to limiting bias. After interviews have been completed the researcher must interpret the data gathered from the participants. Interpretation of the data involves the researcher organizing the data and identifying the codes. Once completed, all participant interviews were transcribed by hand. After transcribing the participant interviews by hand, a review was done by reading over each interview at least twice. Reading the transcripts multiple times allowed the researcher to start the process of identifying codes. Close attention was paid to shifts in topic, pauses in the participants speech, change in tone or any other verbal sounds made by the participants. The researcher highlighted and color-coded similar phrases and common words; Moustakas (1994) refers to this as the process of horizontalization; this was the beginning of coding the themes emerging from the data. Identifying themes in qualitative research is one of the most intrinsic tasks; every line of the transcripts must be scrutinized, while pulling out key phrases and words (Williams & Moser, 2019). Themes can be broad or more narrowed and focused. Themes are derived both from the data and the researchers theoretical underpinning (Williams & Moser, 2019). The themes emerged from the data were genuine and organic; this can only happen when the researcher does not influence the interviews and allows the participant to lead and tell their authentic stories (Cypress, 2019).
When coding the data, the researcher used the bracketing method of journaling as epoche. In phenomenological inquiry, epoché is used as a way to “block the way to the phenomena” (Moustakas, 1994). In practice, the researcher uses this method of bracketing as an intentional way to disrupt the personal assumption or perceptions. The researcher transitioned from a position of personal assumptions and experience to a position of neutrality (Butler, 2016). At the start and conclusion of each interview, the researcher wrote down preconceived notions experienced prior to the interview, personal bias, any feelings or emotions caused by the interview and how the preconceived notions were counteracted by the participant interview; the researcher also made note of all nonverbal communication, participant body language and facial expressions. Bracketing was also used by the researcher to document any personal experiences of the researcher.
Following Moustakas’ method of data analysis, significant statements were grouped into clusters or meaning units, these are also known as themes (Moustakas, 1994). Early in the process, a codebook was created for the raw data, the text, reoccurring words and phrases such as unsupported, cultural competence, insecurity, perception and diversity were highlighted, and comments inserted into the margins of the codebook. For example, the participants experience of inadequacy and insecurity all stemmed from internal doubt based on their race; this led the researcher to develop the internalized race-based inadequacy theme. The researcher put initial thoughts, ideas or questions into the margins to later be addressed by the data. Any information not fitting into one of the themes is noted as a possible area for future research. Each theme, subtheme and code were thoroughly reviewed multiple times until the authentic representation of the data emerged (Roberts, Dowell, & Nie, 2019). The process of teasing out the themes was repeated, so the structural description and essence of the phenomenon was revealed. To ensure credibility, all ten participants are represented in the data analysis, some participant statements were covered under multiple themes.
Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis
As noted by Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, and Winley (2017), the MFT field’s lack of diversity continues to be an issue left unaddressed. African Americans and other minorities have been severely underrepresented in the MFT field (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017; Withers, Reynolds, Reed, & Holtrop, 2017). The number of African American MFT instructors remain significantly lower than any other minority (Harris-McKoy, Guiterrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). The researcher wanted to address the gap looking at this specific population. The researcher sought out participants to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Ten participant interviews were conducted and analyzed. The following textural themes emerged from the data: (a) internalized race-based inadequacy (b) external perceptions, (c) Black student- White professor interactions.
The study sought to address the question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors? The question was developed as a response to the noticeable lack of diversity in the MFT field. African American MFT students have less interaction and exposure to African American instructors. The research question seeks to fill the literature gaps that have failed to address the issue of diversity and the importance of these interactions within the field. Most studies have only interactions between Euro-American instructors and minority clients. African American MFT students are the sole focus of the study. The research is approached using a feminist theory lens to explain the lack of equality and diversity being faced by African American MTF students. Table 2 below presents the frequency of responses obtained from the respondents.
Table 2
Summary of Themes (N=10)
Theme Frequency
Internalized Race-Based Inadequacy 8
External Perceptions 7
Black Student-White Professor Interactions 10
Positive Interaction 4
Negative Interaction 4
Neutral Interaction 2

Theme 1: Internalized Race-Based Inadequacy
Internalized inadequacy can be defined as an internal feeling of non-belonging, particularly in the academic arena where minorities experience high achievements. Harris-McKoy et al. (2017) revealed that African American MTF students have been experiencing alienation since they have limited exposure to African American instructors and faculty while in the class environment. Similar to impostor syndrome, students of color experience low self-confidence compared to their Euro-American peers. Internalized race-based inadequacy lends to low self-efficacy; an individual’s judgment of their capabilities is minimized (Roberts et al., 2019). During participant interviews, all ten participants spoke about feelings of inadequacy or feeling unworthiness. Participants shared their lived experiences of being an African American enrolled in an MFT program. It is important to note 8 out of 10 participants shared experiences of internalized inadequacy based on race. One participant, an older black woman shares her lived experience of being enrolled in an MFT program: “I’m not too far removed from Brown v. Board of education. So, I understand the importance of Blacks in higher education, but I don’t quite understand why I’ve made it this far. I sometimes look in the mirror and wonder if this is real. Am I supposed to be here?” Another participant states, “Even after completing a doctoral program, I don’t like people complimenting me. When someone refers to me as Dr, it makes me uncomfortable. It hasn’t registered that I am a doctor. No one in my family has beyond a bachelor’s degree. I guess I got lucky. In my doctoral program, I felt like I didn’t belong. It could have been my own feelings of inadequacy.”
A participant describes feelings of inadequacy she experiences daily, “Unfortunately, feeling inadequate next to my white peers happens daily. Some of this may be my own identity stuff I need to work through and some not.” One participant shares multiple experiences of the pressure she feels of being an African American in an MFT program and her internalized feelings of inadequacy,
“The idea that I don’t really belong in a program that focuses on marriage and families. I come from a single-parent home.”
“Guarded. That word just popped in my head. I always feel like I have to put on a show for them. I never want them to know when I am struggling to understand a theory or need further clarity on something. I don’t ever want to be looked at as the dumb black girl.”

“I also struggle with a lack of confidence. I’m literally the only person in my family with anything other than a high school diploma; the amount of pressure I feel to succeed sometimes is unreal. I don’t think I’m that smart just really hard working but so are other folks in my family. They always tell me I’m blessed to have made it this far, but they really have no idea. I struggle daily with feeling scared of failing and letting everyone down, especially my parents.”

Due to their lived experiences, two additional participants question if MFT is the right program. “A lot of times I feel like an outsider…it’s hard to explain. I mean, is it me or is it just a crappy program? I don’t know, I just wish I felt better about the program.” “I thought I was prepared for this grad school journey but by my 2nd MFT course I started I was like, WHOA! What the hell have I gotten myself into?! LOL. I don’t feel prepared. In the beginning I had serious doubts about being able to complete the program. A participant shares her internal struggle of possibly being seen as too Black, “I guess my main concern when I was going through my program was making sure that I was black enough, but not too black. I wanted to make sure that I was black enough in the sense of when culturally significant things were brought up, because I was in the spotlight.”
The participant interviews confirm the direct link between the issue of underrepresentation of African American instructors in MFT and the tendency of African American students to experience feelings of alienation and race-based inadequacy. According to Harris-McKoy et al. (2017), the lack of interaction with African American MFT instructors can lead to African American MFT students feeling inferior and unsure how to navigate the post-secondary education system, even if they have achieved significant success. African Americans’ experience shows that they face clear manifestations of internalized racial inadequacy, which confirms the students’ low perception of their real capabilities, as noted by Roberts et al. (2019). This problem also becomes the foundation for the Black learners’ negative external perceptions of their role in the educational environment (Baima & Sude, 2020).
Theme 2: External Perceptions
When asked about their experiences of being an African American MFT student, participants shared experiences of the potential externalized perceptions that could occur. One participant made a few comments regarding external perception,
“I’ve always had a fear of being labeled as, the sensitive black woman, or the sensitive, or the… I don’t want to be angry if I’m passionate about something. If I’m trying to educate, or try to explain a concept, or a dynamic that may seem foreign to my professors and my peers. But then I’m like, if I speak up in the emotional state that I’m currently in, because I’m deeply offended by some of the things people are saying, I don’t want to be seen as, “Oh, she just went crazy in class,” or “she just exploded on everybody in class.”

One participant shares her experience of feeling guarded, “Guarded. That word just popped in my head. I always feel like I have to put on a show for them. I never want them to know when I am struggling to understand a theory or need further clarity on something. I don’t ever want to be looked at as the dumb black girl.” The same participant further states, “I feel like I struggle with opening up to my instructors based on how I think they will perceive me. I wonder how they will perceive me, a Black woman in a white field. I wonder if I am credible or if others will think I am credible. I often wonder if my background will come out and instructors will think I am not the right fit. I just don’t want any of my professors to think I’m not cut out to do this.”
Another participant shares her struggle,
The experience of White instructors is just that…the white experience. They have no idea what it’s like to be a person of color in higher education…no idea. The waters we navigate as African Americans in these spaces can be exhausting. We struggle with being too Black and not Black enough. I wish some professors took the initiative to study the culture. I think it would make us feel like this field was accepting of diversity.

One participant state, “Black people are always viewed as overly sensitive when racial issues arise. Just thinking about it frustrates me.” A participant shared her experience with perception,
With this one white professor, I feel like he wanted me to give him permission to agree or he wanted me to cosign what was being said when we talked about African American cultural norms. It almost felt like he was waiting to see what side I was going to take on the issue. Like, he was waiting to see if I was the safe black woman, the one that doesn’t rock the boat. Or, was I going to be the angry black woman with a lot of sass. I would try to stay as neutral as possible during these discussions, but you know how that goes. I could tell by some of the responses my peers perceived me as the latter. . .I can see the subtle microagressions. I can see the idea that I represent the entire Black race when something about US comes up. I actually don’t. I don’t speak for all Black people, but sometimes White people don’t understand that.

A participant shares her of experience of not wanting to speak up because of the potential external perception’s others could have,
“And certain topics in class were just awkward because I felt like when we were talking about certain things, I wanted to say… I wanted to speak up. But then I’m like, if I speak up in the emotional state that I’m currently in, because I’m deeply offended by some of the things people are saying, I don’t want to be seen as, “Oh, she just went crazy in class,” or “she just exploded on everybody in class.” So I would say the interactions with some of my professors just taught me to kind of like, hold my tongue, which I felt like wasn’t really helpful to the overall point of the program actually.”

External perception experienced by African American MFT students indicates their fear of looking less educated, too emotional, and less worthy, compared to their Euro-American counterparts (Falke et al.,2015). The participants shared experiences of the stigmatization of African American students regarding their racial and cultural sensitivity, which reduces their sense of security. External perceptions often heighten insecurities of African American MFT students, making them feel guarded, frustrated, and afraid to speak up in fear of their Euro-American peers and instructors’ perceptions. Due to the limited exposure to African American MFT instructors, it is difficult for students to detach from these perceptions. The interactions between Black students and White instructors lead African American MFT students to question the cultural competence of the faculty.
Theme 3: Black Student-White Professor Interactions
All ten participants shared their lived experiences of interactions with their white professor. As shown in table 2, four out of the ten participants shared positive interactions.
“I sound like a broken record, but it has been really good. Now, don’t get me wrong, I’ve only had two Black professors and one was biracial. I also had one Indian female; I really liked all of them. Sure. I’ve never felt that I was treated differently because I’m black. Even outside my cohort, a lot of my classmates have been Black. Is the faculty mostly comprised with old white men over the age of 65? Yes! LOL But I can honestly say, they’re knowledgeable, open minded, open to feedback and always encouraging to students. A couple have mentioned on more than one occasion how they wish there was more diversity in faculty but love to see how diverse the students are. The ethics class I mentioned, the instructor really is great and passionate about making sure we understand how even failure to understand and respect different cultures is damaging to clients and to us as future clinicians and most importantly, unethical. I’d like to think in the next 5-10 years, we’ll see more minority faculty.”

Another participant shares her positive interactions with her white professors,
I would still say it’s good. My Professors and academic coach have been supportive. One of my professors started to notice the quality of my work had fallen off, she reached out to me. When we talked, she suggested I take a break to focus on family. I’ve had positive experiences with all of my instructors. The faculty seem to really care about the students. Because of my diverse background, I sometimes think I am looked at as the safe Black woman. I was married to a white man, I have biracial children, I’m also on the lighter side. inaudible trying to think of a PC way to say this…white people typically like me. This may sound slightly offensive but white people don’t often see me as the average Black person.”

A third participant shares, “I haven’t had any negative experiences with my white professors. I’ve liked them and honestly, they have been easy to work with. Now, again, I am guarded. I maintain a very professional demeanor with them.” A fourth participant shares her knowledge of understanding of the research and the importance of African American students and African American instructors and shares her experience with non-minority faculty.
“I’ve had some decent professors and faculty. No issues. I have to admit, I was wondering how this doctoral program would be. I can honestly, say, things have been good. My mentor is Black, she’s actually from Trinidad so it’s great to see a West Indian woman with a Ph.D.; she and I connect on that level. My other professors are just as good. I know research has shown black teachers produce better academic outcomes for black students compared to their white counterparts. I get it, I really do but at the doctoral level, you just don’t see many people of color, minorities, African Americans….or whatever term we want to use to describe people with African ancestry.”

One participant highlights how her interactions have been good and questions if lack of diversity also concerns the professors, “I guess my experience overall has been pretty good. I think sometimes the lack of diversity can also be uncomfortable for them, too.” Two participants shared both a negative and positive experience with their Euro-American professors,
The LORD has blessed me with patient and helpful professors. I am not the best with technology, but I am learning. They have given me additional resources to help me with technology and to help reengage me in the process of studying and that darn APA formatting! LOL I did have one younger White professor that was very cynical and condescending. I don’t know if it was because of my age or race. I believe it was both but I can’t be 100% sure.” “Hmmmmm something about the way he spoke to me. Almost like I was beneath him. One time he used the term “you people” when he saw the look on my face, he quickly corrected himself. Where I’m from that is derogatory. He is also seemed to get frustrated when I had questions about posting an assignment.”

“I’ve had negative interactions with one specific instructor, but I think it’s her personality, she treats everyone as if they are cognitively deficient. She’s been around a long time, lol. Under that tough exterior I think she’s a nice person. All the faculty I’ve approached or been taught by have been good. Now, once class is over, they are out the door, LOL. No sticking around. I think a lot of the faculty are adjunct or PT. They are accessible by email if additional assistance is needed. If I had to rate my experience on a scale of 1-5, I would give it a 3.5, maybe 4.”

Four out of the ten participants shared negative interactions with their non-minority instructors. One participant described how her experience with her Euro-American professors started positive but ended negatively,
“Horrible. Let me not say that. Some have been good. My intro class, my instructor was really great. She was so patient, informative, kind and open minded. After her, it seemed to go downhill. I really do wish more of them were like her. A majority of my classes have been taught by a bunch of privileged and old White men and it always seems to be an issue. They’re so unrelatable and out of touch with the real world. I have real issues with their ignorance of minorities.”

Another participant describes hostility and passive aggressive treatment,
“Ummmmm, I would say some of them, it was very hostile, but like in a passive aggressive way.” She then further describes the different treatment she received from her non-minority peers,
But I just found it interesting on some days when it was really, really warm, my non-black peers could wear shorts and tank tops, but it was unprofessional if I came in here with a pair of shorts and I’m like, It’s 90 degrees outside. Those interactions, it was just, I would say I did not feel the same love and just overall, in general sense of caring that I got from my undergrad experience, which that was something that was difficult to adjust to. It was…it was almost like they really didn’t care if I succeeded, which was really, really different for me.”

“Well, if you are struggling with this class and I don’t think you’ll make it through the rest of grad school, I don’t think you should try to get a master’s” and I was crushed that-… my professor had… you know that didn’t have that, any ounce of faith in me. Like I don’t deserve a master’s because I can’t pass your class?”

One participant, a doctoral student, describer her experience of feeling unsupported during her journey,
“My chair was rude and unsupportive; he made some comments that I felt were inappropriate. He was very critical of my writing and at times made me feel dumb.” “One comment I specifically remember. It is the one that made me request to switch chairs. He said and I quote “How did you even finish your masters with the way you write?” I could have spit bullets when he made that comment. My mind immediately went to, is he saying this because I’m black?! Does he think black people can’t write? Or, did he feel that I was ill equipped to be in the program. I heard from other students that he could be rude. I can guarantee he handles every black student the same. He seemed to do a lot of stereotyping.”

Hmmmmm. So far, they have been okay. I always feel a little awkward tension arise when issues of race and gender come up. I don’t like to discuss situations of race; it can easily turn messy and in an educational environment where I am already the minority, I don’t want any added attention.

All ten participants shared their experiences with their non-minority instructors. The participants described radically different experiences with their White professors. It is necessary to note that African American students most often noted a lack of cultural competence, bias, and the desire to create and maintain stereotypes among the interactions. Following Bandura’s social cognitive theory, encouragement and support from the instructors enhances self-regulation among Black students, enabling them to become more engaged in the classroom setting (Chih-Yuan Sun and Rueda, 2012). The positive interactions included feeling supported by their White professors. The negative interactions reveal participants felt their professors were unrelatable, negative, unsupportive, and ill-informed of the African American culture. The participants also noted the difficulty in building relationships with their White professors. The negative interactions can become a central factor that leads to feelings of inferiority in the learner and lower self-efficacy, which leads to lower self-esteem (Murray et al., 2016).
Summary
In chapter four, the researcher presented the raw data without any interpretation. The aim was to answer the research question, “What are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructor?” Each participant is represented in the presentation of data. The three themes emerged are, (a) internalized race-based inadequacy (b) external perceptions, (c) Black student- White professor interactions. In the first theme of internalized race-based inadequacy, it became clear that a significant number of African American MFT students felt inadequate as they were navigating their MTF studies. Feelings of internalized race-based inadequacy contribute to low self-efficacy, which minimizes an individual’s judgment of their capacities. Underrepresentation and lack of diversity also contribute to low self-efficacy in African American students (Arday, 2018). Diversity and representation in faculty and mentors are vital in helping African American students deal with the internalized feelings of inadequacy they often experience in higher education.
The second theme that emerged from the data focuses on external perceptions. Participants share their experiences and fears of being labeled due to race, especially when they show passion regarding specific topics. The reoccurring theme was the lack of understanding of African Americans’ experience from their Euro-American instructors when navigating a predominantly White space. The third theme focused on black student interaction with White professors; it depicts the lack of diversity in the MFT field. The interview questions’ responses reveal both the positive and negative interactions African American MFT students have experienced with their non-minority instructors. The positive interactions include easy to work with and feelings of being supported. The negative interactions reveal feelings of tension, unsupportive, hostility, and passive aggressiveness. Having a White professor has been an issue for some African American MTF students as they find it quite challenging to interact with them because there is no identifiable connection.
Chapter five will provide a summary and discussion of the results and allow the researcher to link the results to the theoretical framework and literature discussed in chapter two. According to Geerlings et al. (2017) findings regarding Bandura’s social learning theory, a positive relationship between a teacher and student is successful when it is reciprocal in nature. Chapter five is an expansion of the study results that call for increased diversity in the MTF field; it will provide a thorough and complete discussion of the results and interpretation of the results received from the data. Chapter five will also discuss the limitations of the study, including the role of the novice researcher. Recommendations for future research that emerged from the data will be discussed as a way to expand the research in the field.

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
The study’s primary goal was to answer the research question, what are the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors and to address the gap in the literature looking at this specific population (Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). In particular, existing sources have not sufficiently covered professional diversity in the MFT field (Cartwright, Avent-Harris, Munsey, & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2018) and how influential the support from African American MFT instructors is on African American MFT students (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017); especially as it relates to the barriers or challenges learners face. Research has observed the lack of diversity present in MFT and CES (Cartwright, Avent-Harris, Munsey, & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2018; Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). The counseling field struggles with diversity amongst faculty, especially tenured track professors (Cartwright et al., 2018). Statistics from 2017 show 84% of faculty identified as Euro-American; only 6% identified as Black or African American (CACREP, 2017). One of the most unique and paramount responsibilities of a CES doctoral program is preparing the student to embark on and embrace the journey of becoming a mentor (Baltrinic, Moate, Hinkle, Jencius, & Taylor, 2018). Mentorship helps prepare students for potential faculty roles as well as creating their professional identity (Beasley, 2020). Counselor educators have a professional and ethical responsibility to promote diversity in recruitment, retention, and training in all areas of counseling (ACA, 2014). The study seeks to understand African American MFT students’ lived experiences and enhance the awareness of how important it is for African American MFT students to experience African American MFT instructors. These relationships can increase self-efficacy while providing a deeper level of understanding of the African American experience to individuals in the field.
The researcher used a phenomenological qualitative approach to understand the lived experiences of the participants and capture their understanding of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). The previous chapters of the dissertation looked at the background of the problem, the literature to support the research question, the methodology, the theoretical framework of the research and the analysis of the data captured from the participants. The study’s theoretical framework is Bandura’s (1977) social cognitive theory, which demonstrates the link between external environmental factors and human behavioral responses and suggests that there is no need for reinforcement, which is predetermined by the sufficiency of direct observation (Bandura, 1977). The researcher’s personal theoretical lens of feminist theory was also key in wanting to understand the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Feminist theory is often used as an all-encompassing theory to challenge gender inequities, patriarchal oppression, and awareness of gender diversity (Sharma, 2019). Feminist theory is not limited to gender; it encapsulates the notion of equality across all gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (Sharma, 2019). Historically, African Americans have been seen as a marginalized group; feminist theory challenges systemic inequity by advocating for equal treatment while giving voice to marginalized experiences.
Much of the literature examining the experiences of African American students in higher education look at the factors leading to successful completion (Arday, 2018); Davidson, Clark, Ijames, Cahill, & Johnson, 2020; Hrabowski, 2018). Some of the most notable successful completion factors for African Americans in higher education are the student-professor relationship and mentor-mentee relationship (Bryson, 2017; Quinn, 2017; Verhulp, Stevens, Thijs, Pels, & Vollebergh, 2019). African Americans and other minority professors are more inclined to take on a dual role as professors and mentors (Fairlie, Hoffmann, & Oreopoulos, 2014). Research emphasizes the importance of this relationship dynamic and its link to student success outcomes (Austin-Smith, 2016). A study conducted by Patton (2009) views African American female graduate students’ lived experiences and their desire to have access to African American mentors because they often felt overlooked and dismissed by Euro-American faculty. In contrast to Patton’s (2009) study, the research specifically focuses on African American MFT students’ lived experience with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. Research demonstrates the impact African American instructors have on the success of African American learners; this includes their self-esteem and academic performance. This study also sheds light on the barriers and challenges experienced by African American students in the MFT field using Bandura’s (1986) theory as a lens to understand this phenomenon.
African American students seek these relationships with African American faculty and professors to build alliances, create a support system, potential advocate and the possibility of entering into a network of professionals representing a population of students who are underrepresented in the research (Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). A summarization of the study is provided in chapter five; this includes a discussion, and conclusion of the results; the comparison of findings with the theoretical framework and previous literature. The researcher used Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory as a lens to discuss the lived experience of African American MFT students the impact of internalized race-based inadequacy on the success of Black students, their external perceptions, and their interactions with White instructors. In summary, chapter five will conclude with the interpretations and limitations of the findings on African American MFT students’ lived experiences. The gaps in literature imply the need for additional studies as it relates to African American MFT students, an increase in the need for diversification in hiring and retaining minority faculty, and the impact limited exposure to African American MFT instructors has on African American MFT students (Harris et al., 2017). Some of the limitations include the literature gaps focusing specifically on African American MFT students, the lack of an audit trail, and the researcher’s limited experience in conducting qualitative research. Chapter five also provides implications for practice and recommendations for future research.
Emerging Themes
From the research, three themes emerged from the data. These themes include internalized race-based inadequacy, external perceptions of how Euro-American peers and faculty view African American MFT students, and black students-white professor interactions. One of the most salient findings in the research is the internalized race-based self-inadequacy experienced by African American MFT students compared to their Euro-American peers enrolled in MFT programs. The finding of the research study shows that African American MFT students are aware of the lack of African American MFT instructors in the field (Gutierrez, 2018; Lambert-Shute, Nguyen, Peterson & Pirasteh, 2019) and the potential impact it has on their success or failure (Baima & Sude, 2020; Harris, 2020). The research also shows a slow increase in the enrollment of African American MFT students in COAMFTE accredited programs (NCES, 2016). The increase in enrollment has yet to translate into an increase in African American faculty (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017; NCES, 2016). Out of the 10 participants interviewed, responses indicate that internalized race-based inadequacy has often resulted in a state of low self-efficacy and low self-confidence. Feelings of internalized race-based inadequacy can lead to African Americans feeling that failure is imminent when operating in predominantly Euro-American spaces (Baima & Sude, 2020). Internalized race-based inadequacy is defined as internal feelings of deficiency, inadequacy, and incompetence based on being a minority. The participants grapple with the idea of not being good enough despite enrollment in an MFT program and academic success. Out of the 10 participants interviewed eight shared experiences of internalized inadequacy based on race. The feelings of inadequacy are heightened when African Americans are interacting with their white peers and faculty (Erolin & Wieling, 2020). Due to low self-efficacy, most participants have felt inadequate and feel treated as outsiders (Kyndt et al., 2018), especially in the MFT program, hence doubting their ability to complete the program successfully (Erolin & Wieling, 2020).
External perceptions emerged as the second theme of the research. These external perceptions shape how African American MFT students develop their identity and potentially impact their ability to be successful in the program (Falke et al., 2015). Evidence suggests that African American students desire a sense of belonging in postsecondary education, but this is often difficult due to marginalization and can potentially lead to lower self-efficacy (Bandura, 2001; Matthews, Banerjee, & Lauermann, 2014). African American MFT students may be scared to seek assistance from Euro-American faculty due to the fear of appearing less educated, culturally sensitive, or inadequate (Matthews, Banerjee, & Lauermann, 2014), resulting in mistrust and a decrease in building quality relationships with peers and faculty (Arday, 2018). African American MFT students with low self-efficacy are more likely to disengage (Bandura, 2001; Erolin & Wieling, 2020).
African American students in the MFT program face the issue of external perceptions daily, especially from their Euro-American peers and professors (Harris, 2020). Students struggle during class interactions due to the potential of externalized opinions that could occur, especially on discussions that focus on racial and cultural issues (Baima & Sude, 2020; Erolin & Wieling, 2020). African American students feel limited to express their opinions on such matters as they are often viewed as overly sensitive and emotional. Due to such external perceptions, African American students lack a platform to express their dynamics resulting in feeling that the program may not be suitable for them (Harwood, Mendenhall, Lee, Riopelle, & Huntt, 2018). Such external attitudes from their peers and instructors have made African American students feel that MFT’s learning process is less effective.
The third theme emerging from the research is black student-white professor interactions. The research focuses on the black student-white professor interactions the participants experienced during their time in MFT programs. Historically, the educational relationship between African American students and white instructors has been plagued with cultural mistrust (Brettjet, 2017). The relationship dynamic is rooted in a history of trauma, segregation, and racism (Bell, 2020). These complex relationships impact student intrinsic motivation, program completion, self-perception, and academic achievements (Bell, 2020). Enrollment in an MFT program for African American students inevitably means interaction with Euro-American instructors due to the limited number of African American MFT instructors (Gutierrez, 2018; Harris-McKoy, Gutirrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). Student-faculty interactions often transition to mentor-mentee relationships. The forming of these relationships is often critical to successful academic achievement, but these relationships’ development is often challenging to create between African American MFT students and their Euro-American instructors due to cultural mistrust (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017).
The findings of the results reveal interactions mixed reactions from the participants. Four indicated positive interactions out of ten participants, four negative interactions, while two divulge both negative and positive interactions. Positive interactions reported by students include professors were more open-minded, knowledgeable, diverse, and supportive among the positive interactions experienced. In stark contrast, the negative responses represented instructors who lacked diversity, were unsupportive, showed aggressive behaviors, stereotyping, and hostility. Ultimately, the participants felt the professors had limited interactions with minorities and were unrelatable to African American students (Harris, 2020).
Discussion and Interpretation of the Results
The purpose of the phenomenological qualitative research study was to understand the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors and to address the gap in the literature specifically looking at the population. Phenomenological inquiry was used to understand the lived experiences of the ten participants that met the inclusion criteria to participate in the study. Moustakas (1994) the participant should be a coauthor in the research process. The authentic and open dialogue between researcher and participant provided a space where the lived experiences were shared without bias. This section provides the interpretation of the results based on the literature review. The analysis of the results will focus on the research themes. The themes include internalized race-based inadequacy, external perceptions, and black students-white professor interactions.
Internalized Race-Based Inadequacy
The aspect of internalized race-based inadequacy continues to affect African American students in the MFT program (Harris-McCoy et al., 2017). The case is evident from the literature review conducted as few numbers of African American students enroll for doctoral programs compared to the Euro-American students. For instance, in 2015, only 14.1% of African American students had enrolled in doctoral-level programs compared to 57.6% of Euro-American students (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). The percentages are evidence of internalized race-based inadequacy among the African American population. As a result of internalized race-based inadequacy, students often have low self-efficacy as well as low self-confidence creating the idea that they must perform better than their Euro-American peers (Plachowski, 2019). Further, the belief in inadequacy emanates from a lack of connections between African American students and their instructors.
Derosier (2016) observe that students who have a relationship with an instructor are more likely to feel valued and have a sense of belonging, thus more engaged in the learning process. However, due to internalized race-based inadequacy, students have less meaningful interactions with their MFT program instructors (Harris-McCoy et al., 2017). For example, a participant made the following statement, “Guarded. That word just popped in my head. I always feel like I have to put on a show for them. I never want them to know when I am struggling to understand a theory or need further clarity on something. I don’t ever want to be looked at as the dumb black girl.” Another participant shares her feelings of inadequacy compared to her Euro-American peers, “Unfortunately, feeling inadequate next to my white peers happens daily. Some of this may be my own identity stuff I need to work through and some not.”
Internalized race-based inadequacy negatively affects one’s self-efficacy, a vital element of the social cognitive theory. Bandura (1977) defines self-efficacy as people’s perception of their capabilities. Perceiving oneself as incapable elicits feelings of low self-esteem and self-confidence. African American students may feel unworthy of being in an MFT class. One of the participants revealed that “A lot of times I feel like an outsider…it’s hard to explain. I mean, is it me or is it just a crappy program? I don’t know, I just wish I felt better about the program.” “I thought I was prepared for this grad school journey but by my 2nd MFT course I started I was like, WHOA! What the hell have I gotten myself into?! LOL. I don’t feel prepared. In the beginning I had serious doubts about being able to complete the program.” Kamarzarrin, Khaleidan, Shooshtari, Yousefi, and Ahrami (2013) cite a correlation between self-esteem and the imposter phenomenon. Feelings of doubt and apprehension cripple one’s self-esteem resulting in imposter syndrome and are detrimental to self-regulation.
Internalized race-based inadequacy minimizes self-regulation and hinders African American MFT students from formulating academic and career-focused goals. According to Doostian et al. (2015), motivation and goal setting are critical aspects of self-regulation. One participant stated, “I also struggle with a lack of confidence. I’m literally the only person in my family with anything other than a high school diploma; the amount of pressure I feel to succeed sometimes is unreal. I don’t think I’m that smart just really hard-working but so are other folks in my family. They always tell me I’m blessed to have made it this far, but they really have no idea. I struggle daily with feeling scared of failing and letting everyone down, especially my parents. In this instance, the participant’s primary motivation is not to let her parents down. According to Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory, the participant’s motivation is due to the participant’s external environment. However, extrinsic motivation is inadequate as it may result in one doing the bare minimum, instead of aiming for the highest possible academic achievement, since one is only satisfied with the positive external perceptions.
External Perceptions
External perceptions have significantly influenced the lived experiences and the learning processes of African American students in the MFT program. Due to lack of diversity among the students, instructors, and faculty members, African American students have often felt underrepresented as a result of marginalization. Besides, external perceptions have limited African American students’ capacity to effectively engage in class discussions and with their professors to avoid further labelling. One of the participants express, “I’ve always had a fear of being labeled as, the sensitive black woman, or the sensitive, or the… I don’t want to be angry if I’m passionate about something. If I’m trying to educate, or try to explain a concept, or a dynamic that may seem foreign to my professors and my peers. But then I’m like, if I speak up in the emotional state that I’m currently in, because I’m deeply offended by some of the things people are saying, I don’t want to be seen as, “Oh, she just went crazy in class,” or “she just exploded on everybody in class.” The Social Cognitive theory affirms that negative external perceptions result in adverse outcomes (Bandura, 2001). It reinforces students’ withdrawal from class participation as the instructors do not relate to the African American culture.
Negative external perceptions hamper the formation of constructive student-teacher relationships. Skea (2017) observe that student-teacher relationship helps to foster an environment of trust, resilience, perseverance, and enhances the educational experience. However, it is unfortunate that African American students do not have the privilege of such relationships due to external perceptions from some of their instructors who do not relate to their cultural backgrounds. An example of this can be seen in the following participant comment, “We struggle with being too Black and not Black enough. I wish some professors took the initiative to study the culture. I think it would make us feel like this field was accepting of diversity.” The participant further states, “The experience of White instructors is just that…the white experience. They have no idea what it’s like to be a person of color in higher education…no idea.” Although Cherng and Haplin (2016) note that cultural differences have the potential to arise in the classroom and impact student-teacher and peer relationships, the external perceptions continue to dominate the classroom activities, especially on matters of race, gender, and culture. The perceived external perceptions experienced by African American MFT students can determine the nature of interactions between Black students and their White professors.
Black Students-White Professor Interactions
Interactions between African American students with white professors are inevitable. However, the outcome of the communications often has mixed reactions due to interpersonal differences (Gasser et al., 2018). The differences reflect on attitudes and perceptions of students towards their professors and vice versa hence the aspect of satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Kuo and Belland (2016) posit that one of the essential measures of learning outcomes are student satisfaction and is often measured by their evaluation of the academic program. One participant shares how the MFT instructors she has encountered have created a feeling of dissatisfaction, “Horrible. Let me not say that.” The participant further states, “A majority of my classes have been taught by a bunch of privileged and old White men and it always seems to be an issue. They’re so unrelatable and out of touch with the real world. I have real issues with their ignorance of minorities.” As demonstrated by the following participant comment, some participants demonstrated satisfaction while interacting with the white professors which led to enhanced chances of academic achievements. “I haven’t had any negative experiences with my white professors. I’ve liked them and honestly, they have been easy to work with. Now, again, I am guarded. I maintain a very professional demeanor with them.” In contrast, some participants reported cases of dissatisfaction as a result of poor-quality relationships with instructors, which affected their academics. A participant shares how the experience with her Euro-American professor made her feel, “my chair was rude and unsupportive; he made some comments that I felt were inappropriate. He was very critical of my writing and at times made me feel dumb.” Walker (2018) maintains that there is a need to support African American students in higher learning education to create a reliable support system and strong networks.
The participant statements illustrate that there are low, poor-quality interactions among African American students with their white instructors in doctoral-level programs and illuminate the need to diversify the MFT field to increase positive interactions. They will enhance one’s belief that they are qualified and can achieve their academic goals and reinforce self-regulatory behavior. MFT programs have to ensure the student-professor relationship is strengthened to assist with educational success. Research continues to suggest that Euro-American instructors tend to have negatively charged interactions with African American students based on historical and societal race-relations (Overton, 2018; Page, 2020). Adopting strategies to enhance the relationship between Euro-American instructors and African American MFT students can potentially lead to African Americans having a sense of belonging in MFT programs.
One of the research results’ significant contributions is linking African American students’ lived experience in doctoral programs to Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory.
More so, the results will contribute to the literature on MFT and counseling programs, and the lived experiences of African American students enrolled in MFT programs. While conducting the research, one of the limitations faced was the lack of adequate scholarly studies on African American students’ experiences in the field of MFT. Most of the research was mainly focused on the relationship between African American students and Euro American teachers, not specifically in the MFT field. Additionally, while the existing research accounted for the negative experiences of African American students in MFT programs, it failed to provide a theoretical perspective of the impact of these experiences. In order to adhere to the ACA codes of ethics, the research was conducted in an ethical manner, consistent with the guiding principles of participant confidentiality, informed consent, while being mindful of boundaries and reporting accurate data as collected from the participants (ACA, 2014). The research results will add to the limited literature contributing to the future success of studies conducted in the MFT field and counseling programs. The social cognitive theory application will highlight the role of internalized race-based inadequacy on the institutionalization and normalization of racial discrimination (Garvey, 2019). Moreover, it will enable scholars to conduct further research on the impact of modeling, self-efficacy, and self-regulation of African American students in the MFT field.
Conclusions Based on the Results
The research indicates that diversity and inclusion in education systems have gained momentum. Many post-secondary educational programs seek to ensure diversity is represented in students and faculty (Dollarhide et al., 2018). However, the same research provides evidence that African American faculty and students often experience systemic racism in educational institutions similar to what is experienced in society. Recruitment and retention of African American faculty and students have been prevalent in the research over the past ten years (Cartwright et al., 2018). The experience can be attributed to a lack of African American mentors and the unequal representation of African American students in a predominantly Euro-American environment (Haskins et al., 2016). Despite enhanced efforts and affirmative actions to promote educational opportunities for African American students, enrollment remains low. In contrast, as the numbers of African American MFT students continue to increase slowly, inequalities in hiring minority faculty members remain significant (Marks & Reid, 2013). The lack of diversity in MFT programs poses a challenge in African American MFT students’ overall learning process.
The CES field continues to promote the importance of diversity in hiring practices. Diversity leads to a more enriching experience for learners, exposing them to various perspectives, ultimately enhancing their professional identity (Cartwright et al., 2018). Counselor educators have a responsibility to train and promote cultural competence within the counseling field (CACREP, 2015) while also integrating multicultural competence into the mentoring and supervisory relationship (Gutierrez, 2018). Consequently, the recruitment and admission strategies targeted towards African American students have significant limitations. The strategies employed are limited in that they view diversity as an end to itself rather than a process that can influence all spheres of life (Milem, Chang, & Antonion, 2005). The recruitment and admission strategies often focus on enrolling specific numbers of African American students in learning institutions rather than a holistic view of their continuous well-being and academic progress through mentorship and support (Slay, Reyes, & Posselt, 2019). Therefore, the lack of adequate mentorship and support in MFT programs hinders active learning among African American students. Administration is typically dominated by Euro American instructors and peers who often do not understand or relate to the African American culture, leading to external perceptions and stereotyping (Bell, 2018).
As evidence, there is an increase in the number of African American students in higher education. The quality of student-instructor relationships remains low, as well as a lack of support and mentorship. Subsequently, the issue of low self-efficacy continues to be ubiquitous among African American students. Due to low self-efficacy and self-confidence, African American students often struggle through their academic programs, ultimately affecting their success and retention rates (MacPhee et al., 2013). The outcomes relate to Meador’s (2018) observation that the level of self-efficacy among African American students affects their academic achievements. Further, the degree of self-efficacy and confidence can be directly linked to faculty mentorship and support. Additionally, Kelly (2019) observes that although the level of recruitment and admissions among the minority groups into the higher learning institutions has increased, the increase is less transformational as students have inadequate support and mentorship hence resulting in low self-efficacy. Post-secondary institutions must take proactive measures in providing African American students with adequate backing and mentorship, therefore, promoting active learning and high retention rates.
Comparison of Findings with Theoretical Framework
and Previous Literature
As previously discussed, self-efficacy is defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, pg. 3, Bandura, 1986). Diversity and representation are key elements in raising self-efficacy in students. Self-efficacy is directly linked to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, which views individuals as functioning in a transactional manner (van Dinther, Dochy, & Segers, 2011). Bandura describes the transaction as a link between success, internal factors, and environmental events (Bandura, 1986, Bandura, 1997). African American students with low self-efficacy are more likely to struggle academically. The Higher Education Statistics Academy (HESA) ethnicity report (2016) shows a rapid decline of diversification and leadership roles for African Americans in higher education. The trickle-down impact of this can result in a decline in African Americans enrolling in higher education (Allyón, Alsina, & Colomer, 2019).
African American and other minority professors are more inclined to take on a dual role as professor and mentor (Fairlie, Hoffmann, & Oreopoulos, 2014). Research places great emphasis on the link between this relationship and student success outcomes (Austin-Smith, 2016; McGrath & Van Bergen, 2015; Thijs & Fleischmann, 2015). A study conducted by Patton (2009) views the experiences of African American female graduate students and their desire to have access to African American mentors because they often felt overlooked and dismissed by Euro-American faculty
The research findings demonstrate the aspect of self-efficacy among African American students. Self-efficacy can be linked to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, which views individuals as functioning in a transactional manner (Van Dinther, Dochy, and Segers, 2011). Bandura describes the transaction as a link between success, internal factors, and environmental events (Bandura, 1986, Bandura, 1997). African American students with low self-efficacy are more likely to struggle academically. Similarly, the findings relate to Meador’s (2018) observation that the level of self-efficacy among African American students affects their academic achievements, which can often be attributed to the mentorship and support received from their instructor’s faculties. Likewise, Kelly (2019) observes that low self-efficacy among African American students can be traced to the lack of proactive initiatives to support minority students.
Additionally, the research findings present the increasing need for mentorship and support for African American MFT students, especially from minority professors and mentors. Similar results are evident from Fairlie, Hoffmann and Oreopoulos (2014) research that African American and other minority professors are more inclined to take on a dual role as professors and mentors to meet the increasing demand for support and mentorship among minority student groups. Further scholars such as (Austin-Smith, 2016; McGrath & Van Bergen, 2015; Thijs & Fleischmann, 2015) have placed significant emphasizes on the relationship between students-instructors and the considerable potential in influencing students’ success not only in their academics but also in their personal and professional development. Additionally, the demand for mentorship can be related to a study conducted by Patton (2009) that examines the experiences of African American female graduate students and their desire to have access to African American mentors because they often felt overlooked and dismissed by Euro-American faculty. As the evidence illustrates, the growing demand for student-teacher mentorship and support remains salient in promoting active learning.
Limitations
The researcher must acknowledge and discuss the limitations of the study. The study’s limitations are often subjective but critical to the results and the generalizability of the study (Morse, 2016). One limitation of the study that must be addressed is the researcher’s inexperience. Being a novice researcher can be seen as an overwhelming and daunting task (Chu et al., 2017). The novice researcher is seeking to add to an existing and established body of knowledge by performing original inquiry for an identified problem. When undertaking a phenomenological inquiry for the first time, individuals often seek to understand a problem intimately related to their personal experiences (Chu et al., 2017). Due to the personal connection of the phenomenon being investigated, the researcher employed a bracketing method that allowed the opportunity to address biases. The researcher opted to journal before the start of each participant interview and at the conclusion of each interview.
Another important limitation to address is the theoretical of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory (SCT). SCT looks at the direct link between modeling, observation, and self-efficacy. Through vicarious learning, the observer models specific behaviors appropriate to their environment (Bandura, 1986). Self-regulation and self-efficacy are the two primary constructs of SCT; students displaying high self-efficacy levels are more likely to successfully complete tasks; lower self-efficacy results in lowered motivation and an inability to complete tasks (Bandura, 1986). Despite the effectiveness of SCT, it does present some limitations. The theory fails to take into account how maturation, emotion, and motivation can lead to change in the individual; it also relies heavily on an individual’s learning process and fails to take into account any hormonal and biological factors influence on behavior. According to the SCT, direct observation is the only way individuals learn dismissing one’s own personal experience.
Phenomenology was chosen because it allowed the researcher to understand the participants’ lived experiences (Moustakas, 1994). It is essential to highlight the two distinctly different approaches to phenomenology. Moustakas (1994) views phenomenology as transcendental subjectivity, eliminating preconceived notions, and understanding the correlation between objective and subjective acts (Husserl, 1970; Moustakas, 1994). Transcendental phenomenology directly opposes scientific studies focusing exclusively on materialism. Understanding the abstract and consciousness is one of the core components of phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). Descriptive phenomenology developed by Giorgi (1970) is a direct contrast of the transcendental approach. Giorgi desired to bring attention to the phenomenon in a more normative and scientific approach grounded in psychology (Finlay, 2009; Giorgi, 1970; Giorgi, 2009).
Giorgi (1970) would argue the need for the phenomenon to be articulated using descriptive language and not simply interpreted using naïve descriptions (Giorgi, 2012). It could also be argued Moustakas’s application of phenomenology is aligned with individual psychotherapeutic work which is in direct contrast of the philosophical direction of Husserl (1970). The approach used by Moustakas also lends a level of sensitivity to the research participant which allows subjective interpretation of the experience. Moustakas (1990) infers the researcher is the creator of the story that illustrates the unique experiences and the meanings attached to the experience. Despite the lack of scientific merit as expressed by some critics of Moustakas’ (1990) interpretation of phenomenology (Claudia, 2018; Davis, 2020; Mitchell, 2018; Pedersen, 2020) the core of phenomenology is the collaborative relationship between the researcher and participant and the genuine desire of understanding the phenomenon through the experiences of others.
The request for participants was not gender specific, however, all research participants were female. The inclusion of a male participant would have possibly added an additional perspective, especially since the MFT field is traditionally dominated by males (Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017). Adhering to phenomenological inquiry meant asking two semi-structured open-ended questions (Moustakas, 1994). The addition of one or two additional questions, specifically focusing on self-efficacy, could have potentially added a more rich and descriptive narrative from the participant. The researcher did not want to unintentionally create bias during the interview process or lead the participant to answer the question using particular language, so the researcher opted not to use a question targeted on self-efficacy. One of the inclusion criteria of the study was that the participant be a current student of a COAMFTE accredited MFT program or a graduate from 2016 or later. Opening up the criteria to include participants whom have graduated from earlier years or even participants not currently enrolled due to various circumstances could have potentially influenced the findings of the study.
African Americans in MFT has not been widely studied (Harris-McKoy, Gutierrez, Strachan, & Winley, 2017); limited research articles were located on the topic. The researcher had to rely on peer-reviewed articles, heavily focused on the relationship between African American students and Euro American teachers, not specifically in the MFT field. The lack of research found on this population shows the continuous need to address the gap in the research. Lastly, the researcher’s personal connection to the study can be viewed as a limitation. The sample population of African American MFT students currently enrolled in a COAMFTE accredited MFT program, or a graduate closely mimics the researcher. Bracketing was used throughout the research process to maintain objectivity, but Moustakas (1994) clearly states the transcendental process occurs when the researcher truly understands the relationship between self and the phenomenon. Limitations of a study lead the researcher to understand the implications for practice, such as an opportunity to broaden the research and specifically address issues relating to the lack of African Americans in the MFT field and recruiting and retaining more diverse faculty. It can also further research into issues such as the impact of imposter syndrome and its impact on the success of African American students completing MFT programs.
Credibility
In the literature, credibility is defined as the truth of the data’s research results (Cope, 2014). The researcher used the triangulation method to ensure credibility (Patton, 1999). One of the limitations of the study is the researcher failed to develop an audit trial but did follow Moustakas (1986) steps of data analysis. The researcher also used a variety of literature and data sources to support the need to research African American MFT students’ lived experiences with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. The literature revealed the under-representation of African Americans in MFT, the value of positive bonding with instructors from the same ethnic group, and the relationship between African American instructors and students. The study’s credibility was also enhanced by the researcher conducting a series of interviews with African American MFT students who shared their perspectives on the MFT field and their challenges. The use of Moustakas (1994) systematic process of analysis and synthesis of the data also ensures the research’s credibility.
Dependability
Dependability is a parameter that determines the predictability and consistency of research and its results (Cope, 2014). Dependability allows the study to be replicated by another researcher using a similar setting and similar participants (Cope, 2014), resulting in a uniformity of the interpretation of the data. The first step in establishing dependability is the use of a dissertation chair; one of the roles of the chair is to act as a mentor and an independent auditor to ensure all steps of the study are transparent and the findings are supported by the interpretation of the data (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). In addition to working with the dissertation chair, the researcher field tested the questions by consulting with three MFT’s, each reviewed the interview questions and provide feedback to determine if the questions were appropriate for the identified population. The field test ensured the information is reliable and can be used by other researchers in future studies.The three MFT’s took on the role of the expert panel review; they act as a critical part of the research process, enhancing the dependability of the study. The second step was to provide a detailed description of the recruitment process, interview instrument, and the interview process. Finally, the study results were interpreted using the participants’ direct statements and following Moustakas’ steps for data analysis. Using direct statements from the participants help lend to the transferability of the study.
Transferability
Transferability looks at the ability to view the study results in an alternative setting (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Capturing the vivid and thick descriptions of the participant experiences allows individuals outside of the MFT profession to understand the participants’ lived experiences. Following the framework of Moustakas, the researcher asked two broad questions that allowed the participants to share their lived experiences. The research focused on a specific target audience, African American MFT students, with limited exposure to African American instructors. The study results can be generalized to a broader audience looking to understand the experiences of African American students in higher education. The findings are transferable and provide ample opportunities for further research.
Implications for Practice African Americans in Counselor Education and Supervision
The research findings will help emphasize the importance of mentorship in counseling programs. The aspect of mentorship in counselor education and supervision (CES) CACREP accredited doctoral programs is critical for counselors who want to continue to make an impact in the counseling field as they transition from practitioner to supervisor and mentor (Cartwright et al., 2018). Through counselor educators and supervisors, students can learn an array of counseling knowledge and skills. The relationship is essential for orchestrating the learner’s involvement in achieving the goals of supervision (Cartwright et al., 2018). Counselor educators are an integral part of developing students that will promote the counseling field.
Additionally, counselor educators will be aware of specific issues in the field, explore methods of addressing these issues, and recognize their role for the future of the counseling profession (Grunhaus et al., 2018). One of the leading roles for counselor educators’ is to match the needs of individual students. Therefore, the relationship between supervisor and supervisee should be open and grounded in honest communication-much like the student-teacher relationship. During the process, feedback is essential for the novice student to develop skills promoting the counseling profession (Borders, 2019). The approach will enhance the students’ developmental progression and growth.
Development of Professional Identity in CES
The counseling profession has struggled to establish a consistent and coherent professional identity that is uniform across all disciplines (Cureton & Davis, 2019). Various specialists within the field want their identities to be separate so that the public can understand the populations being served (Person et al., 2020). One of the counselor educator’s role is to model behavior while teaching various counseling techniques and theories. According to Bandura (1986), learning occurs when it is modeled and observed. Modeling and observation are both key constructs of social cognitive theory. African American MFT students with exposure to African American MFT instructors have the opportunity to observe behaviors and model those behaviors while increasing self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Expanding the ethnic representation of the faculty staff can enrich the student experience and create a healthy connection between external factors and behavioral strategies. Overall, the profession wants to distinguish itself from school counseling, psychology, and social work to represent the differences and distinctions in professional training (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018). Counselor educators and supervisors are seen as teachers, mentors, and the gatekeepers of the profession (Lile, 2017). Distinguishing itself from other disciplines in counseling is vital for individuals to understand how essential the CES role is in promoting the counseling field and developing the next generation of counselors.
The study is crucial to the development of a researcher. According to Fink (2000), a human being is the only sufficiently complex instrument to comprehend and learn about human existence. The researcher’s primary role was to give voice to the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. The researcher identified a theoretical framework and methodology reflecting the problem, population, and research design. Applying a phenomenological approach allowed the researcher to understand participants’ lived experiences, thus eliminating preconceived notions and biases. The study allows one to recognize that academic prowess is not the sole determining factor in academic achievement. The study looks at how vital the relationship between African American students and their instructors is in shaping their attitudes, which ultimately reflects their self-efficacy and self-regulation. It is a vital component in their academic success. Therefore, researchers have an obligation to remain open-minded, objective, and present accurate research.
Recommendations for Further Research
Recommendations are critical in any research paper as they provide a guideline on how best to improve when undertaking similar research in the future (Read et al., 2016). One of the recommendations that the researcher must address in future is the theoretical limit. The use of phenomenology study design is crucial for collecting data of participants’ lived experiences enabling the gathering of primary data. However, data gathered through phenomenological study may be regarded as biased with low credibility due to interferences such as personal preferences, attitudes, and variances exhibited in behavior (Jamali, 2018). Therefore, the researcher must incorporate an additional study design to enhance the credibility of data gathered, this can significantly influence the intended audience. The use of an audit trail in future studies will strengthen the confirmability and ensure rigor as it describes and details the data analysis process. Future research can be done quantitatively to better capture the mixed reactions and experiences of the participants. The future use of a Likert scale or other survey will allow data to be gathered and generalized from a larger pool of participants and analyzed using statistical software. In addition to changing the methodology of the study, using a new theoretical framework would be beneficial.
To further understand African American MFT students’ lived experiences, future research could be done using the lens of critical race theory (CRT). CRT was designed to reconstruct the relationship between race, racism, and power (Patton, 2016); it contends that racism should be acknowledged and not glossed over as aberrational. CRT also looks at giving voice to the unique experiences of people of color while coexisting in predominantly Euro-American spaces (Cabrera, 2018); one of the goals of the research study is to give a voice to the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors. CRT could also be used to further the research on the limited number of African American faculty teaching in MFT programs and the implications of the intersectionality of race and gender in a field heavily dominated by Euro-American males. Also, retaining and diversification of faculty can be addressed in future research. One of the challenges is universities have limited ability to retain a diversified pool of professors, so it becomes more difficult to attract and retain a diversified student body (Slay, Reyes, & Posselt, 2019). Diversification in higher education is not only a diverse campus environment but a restructure of existing policies, procedures and hiring practices for minority staff.
Researchers can also explore the relationship between Black students enrolled in postsecondary education and imposter syndrome. Feelings of imposter syndrome are particularly prominent in minority students, especially minorities in higher education. Studies have shown an explicit link between ethnic identity and impostor syndrome (Edwards, 2019 & Wyatt et al., 2019). First generation African Americans in higher education are also more easily suspectable to impostor syndrome. African Americans are seen as a marginalized group and may easily develop maladaptive coping strategies in academic settings. African American students may find it easy to display negative behavior because the pressures of being a first-generation student in higher education feels overwhelming (Marshall, Klocko, & Davidson, 2017). In the study conducted by Clance and Imes (1978), one clear indicator for failure in first-generation African Americans in higher education is the idea of being exposed as someone who does not belong. Individuals with impostor syndrome often believe they have often achieved success from an ulterior motive and not hard work. Feelings of excitement are countered by feelings of inadequacy and fraud (Edwards, 2019). Impostor syndrome, also known as, impostor phenomenon can interfere with academic achievements, create feelings of inadequacy, increase anxiety and depression; it can also create an unhealthy sense of competition among self and peers (Peetet, Montgomery, & Weekes, 2015).
Assumptions held by students regarding their experiences if they had a Black professor emerged from the data as a theme. Participants share their assumptions of feeling of validated and supported if the professor was African American. The professors would have a better understanding of cultural diversity, minority issues, and demonstrate patience and more understanding than their Euro-American professors (Cabrera, 2018). Further, the students think that diversity and representation in faculty by African American professors would be vital in dealing with internalized feelings of inadequacy (Roberts et al., 2019) they often experience in higher education. Research done specifically looking at African American MFT students and their relationships with their African American professors could potentially substantiate these assumptions. Additionally, researchers may examine the effect of having instructors of other nationalities and racial backgrounds teaching African American MFT students. It would also be beneficial for future research to include the historical relationship of African Americans and the church as it relates to marital issues.One of the surprising themes that emerged from the data is the desire for African Americans leaning on the church for support when marital issues arise to seeking licensed, clinical MFT professionals. During times of slavery, African Americans were not granted the privilege to legally marry (Logan, 2011). During times of slavery and beyond, African Americans have used the church as a haven during difficult times (Dalton & Leung, 2014). The fragility of African American marriages stem from various issues but the common thread was turning to clergy for guidance.
Conclusion
Understanding the lived experiences of African American MFT students with limited exposure to African American MFT instructors is critical in evaluating MFT program’s effectiveness. Among the issues identified in the research is the lack of adequate academic support and mentorship for African American students enrolled in MFT programs. The problem can be attributed to the lack of minority professors/mentors in higher learning institutions, which is directly link to underrepresentation in the field. The lack of representation further affects the learning process as African American MFT students run the risk of having limited meaningful interactions with the Euro-American instructors (Beasley, 2020). Discussions of race and diversity between African American students and Euro-American instructors can be ultra-sensitive and a source of contention (Thomas, 2020; Yaylac & Beauvais, 2017). A non-minority or Euro-American professor can potentially operate from bias, unintentionally stereotyping the student based on previous interactions with other African Americans (Parker & Neville, 2019).
Literature sources and previous research support these findings as well. In particular, Overton (2018) emphasizes that the vast majority of African American students want support from African American instructors, which often presents a challenge due to the lack of ethnic diversity among faculty. Feelings of loneliness and isolation from peers is also an issue for African American students in higher education (Plenty & Jonsson, 2017). Often the lack of meaningful interactions is due to personal differences mainly characterized by race and cultural issues (Beasley, 2020). Therefore, the research findings will aid in emphasizing the need for inclusion, diversity, and multiculturalism within MFT programs and learning institutions. Students’ satisfaction and experience are critical in any academic program. The research results illustrate that African American students feel that their level of satisfaction and experience would be enhanced if they had African American professors. Increasing African American faculty in MFT programs could lead to African American MFT students having a sense of belonging which promotes support and encouragement (Barker, 2016; Thomas, 2020).
African American instructors account for only 6% of the total academic faculty in higher education institutions. The interviews’ results have shown that a significant relationship occurs between the success of African American students, their level of self-esteem, and the availability of support from their instructors. An additional conclusion from the study is the need to increase the ethnic diversity amongst the academic staff in colleges and universities. MFT programs should explore ways to incorporate inclusive strategies for hiring diverse faculty (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017). Further, the research will need to integrate reliable support and mentorship initiatives for African American students in the MFT program. The aspect of mentorship is vital in the counseling program as it forms the basis of personal and professional development for students. Counselor educators have a vested interest in the complexities of developing multicultural competent counselors that can advance the field by being in administrative and faculty roles (Harris-McKoy et al., 2017).
The counseling field promotes respect for diversity based on its codes of ethics and the commitment to attract and retain diverse students to create a supportive learning community (CACREP, 2016). The research study is crucial in contributing to information on African American students in the MFT program filling the gap of limited research in this field. However, given the fact that the study uses a phenomenological approach, which increases the subjectivity of the data obtained, it becomes necessary to expand the theoretical limit and improve the research plan in future studies. Research continues to illuminate the need for equity in the MFT field; diversification will not happen overnight, but the continued efforts to strengthen inclusive practices and promote equity for students and faculty demonstrate an ongoing willingness to understand cultural competence complexities.

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