Critique of Instructional Models for PE

Critique of Instructional Models for PE Order Description check “PE Education Essay Instruction.pdf” which I will upload later for details. - We only have access to EBSCO HOST (database). Please do not use any supporting documents which are not available for free on the internet and not in this database. - Please use Australian Curriculum http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/health-and-physical-education/curriculum/f-10?layout=1 - Please contact me if you do not have access to EBSCO HOST and need more journal articles. - Please do not use many big words or very complicated grammar structure as English is not my first language. - Please use PDF files that I upload on top of the above textbook. I need at least 6 sources included in the essay, but you can use as many as you want. Essay requirements: 2000 Words Choose two models from the following list: Direct Instruction; Cooperative Learning; Sport Education; Peer Teaching; Inquiry Teaching; and Tactical Games (Metzler, 2005). A variety of instructional models can be used for teaching Physical Education. Apply critical thinking in order to compare and contrast two models with regards to the theories of teaching and learning in Physical Education and the complexities in HPE. Draw upon relevant peer reviewed theory and research, and the current curriculum for HPE in order to construct your critique. Metzler, M. (2005). Instructional models for physical education. (2nd ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway Publishers. (Please refer the summarised PDF file “Metzler Instructional Model.pdf”) This assessment item provides students with the opportunity to demonstrate their achievement of the following learning outcomes: (1) Describe students’ common stages and patterns of development in HPE (3) Understand complexities in HPE as a discipline including its description in AusVELS and the Australian Curriculum (4) Develop a range of pedagogies to enable students’ effective learning about and through HPE including the use of digital technologies COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of Tabor College Victoria pursuant to Part V8 of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of thís material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not reniove this notice. Eu ropean Phy,Fjffi!,H$ysation Review Proposing conditions for assessment efficacy in physical education Peter Hay and Dawn Penney European Physical Education Review 2009 15: 389 DOI: 1 0.1 177 I 1356336X09364294 The online version of this article can be found at: http ://e pe. sa ge pu b. com/contenV 1 5/3/389 Published by: Osner http ://wwr,v.sagepubl i cations. com On behalf of: North West Counties Physical Education Association Additional services and information for European Physical Educatíon Review can be found at: Email Alerts : http://epe.sagepu b. com/cg i/aleds Subscriptions: http://epe.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints : http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://r,vww.sagepub,com/journalsPermissions. nav C itations : http://epe.sagepub. com/contenVl 5/3/389. refs. html >> Version of Record - Jul 12,2010 What is This? Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com al Charles Sturt Un¡versily on January 22,2012 EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW [DOl: I 0. I I 77l I 356336X09364294] Volu me I 5 (3) :3 89405:3 6429 4 Proposing condition¡ for a¡¡enm?nt efficacy in physical education Peter Hay University of Queensland, Australia and Dawn Penney University of Tasmania, Australia Abstract ln arguing for more comprehensive practice, policy and research considerations of assessment in physical education (PE),this paper outlines and discusses four integrated conditions of assessment effìcacy for the development and promotion of productive assessment rn PE. These conditions are prefaced by the proposition that quality PE requires the concerted and considered alignment of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment and the inclusion of a primary focus on assessment for learning; authentic, integrated assessment; assurance of construct validity; and socially just approaches to assessment, The conditions themselves are not new however their integration has been a notable omission from PE literature in the pasl lmplicit in these conditions is a call for a broadening of the curriculum content of PE and an employment of physical activity as site for learning in multiple domains in addition to its recognition as a learning focus, Key-words: assessment effìcacy . domain content . integration lntroduction In recent years the importance of assessment in and for physical education (PE) has been increasingly recognized within the international PE community (e'g' Hay, 2006; Hardman and Marshall, 2000; Redelius et al., 2009; Rink and MitcheIl, 2002; Thorburn, 2007). lØhile a steady increase in the volume of assessment research is commendable, a coherent theoretical rationale for assessment practice, policy and resea¡ch in the Êeld has been surprisingly elusive. Certainly there has been solid consensus regarding the necessity for assessment that is learning oriented (e.g. Richard and Godbout, 2000; Yeal, 1992a, I992b, 1995) and authentic in nature (e.g. Mohnsen, 1997; Oslin, 2003; Oslin et aI., 1998), however these respective emphases and other considerations such as validity have rarely been discussed o¡ researched in an integtated manner. Øith this is mind, we believe it is timely to articulate an inregrated set of conditions for the pursuit of asses¡ntent fficøcy in PE, and to prompt further theoretical, critical and practical discussions to this end. Copyríght @ 2009 North West Counties Physicol Educotion Associotion ond SAGE Publicotions (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi ond Singoþore) www,sogeþublicotions.com Domloaded from epe sagepub.com at charles Slurt LJniveßify on January 22,2012 390 EUROPEAN pHYStCAL EDUCATTON REVIEW l5(3) Considerations of assessment efficacy in PE draw our attention to the desired outcomes and effects of assessment and the factors that contribute to rhese outcomes. In this paper we argue thar assessment should be viewed as a process through which learning can be promoted, and that the satisfaction of this learning intent through the authentic, valid and socially just alignment of assessment, curriculum and pedagogy is a basis for claims of efficacy. The assertions of this paper are noc ignorant of the inherenr conrenrions associated with atrempting to define or describe the basis and content of learning in PE, Nor do they ignore the significance of assessment as a mechanism for accountability (Green,2OOl;Hardman and Marshall,2000;Rink and Mitchell, 2002) or as a potentially problematic contributor to the neo-libe ral management processes of contemporary western education systems (Ranson, 200Ð where che assessment outcomes of school cohorts are used for making judgements and comparisons for the purpose of regulation, control, attrition and change within the system (8a11,2003;Meadmore and Meadmore,2004).In proposing conditions for assessment effrcacy we hope, rather, to bring such learning contentions to rhe fore and challenge PE stakeholders to 'think both critically and imaginatively about the values and logical basis' of learning for which an account can be meaningfully and validly given through assessmenr (Thorburn, 2007: 21I). Inherent in this endeavour is a query over the appropriateness and breadth ofpast conrenr and assessment foci in PE, For example, while we acknowledge the veracity of Rink and Mitchell's assertions in light of communiry health concerns over increasing rates of lifestyle diseases that PE is in an excellent position to 'obtain support for irs programs' (2002:254),we argue rhat the PE community's capacity to account for the impact of PE on health is quite limited. Moteover, such a curriculum focus on health intervention raises questions about the types and educational worth of assessmenrs thar mighr be employed to provide such an account. Øe also note that rhe curriculum accounted for by assessment in many itetations of PE has tended to be overly narrow, typically focusing on either the individual execution of skills (both processes and products) and/or the strategic awareness of students in performance/ game contexts (e.g. Nadeau et al., 2008; Oslin et a1.,1998).In our view such narrow foci potentially stifle the possibilities for more sophisticated learning in the subject. The work of Macdonald and Brooker (1997a, r991b) (Queensland) and Thorburn and Collins (2006) (Scotland) are examples of aberrations to this trend in that the curricula represenred by the assessments proposed have been much broader, requiring the application of conrenr from several subdisciplines of human movement such as motor learning, sport and exercise psychology, sociology, to movement itself. Condltions of assessment efficacy in PE The promorion of assessmenr effrcacy requires a clear understanding of the desired effects of assessment as well as the conditions necessary for optimizing their realizarion. Before atrempting co articulate an integrated statement of these conditions it is necessary to make some definitional clarifications about assessment. Sadler (2005) Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charles Slurt Univers¡ly o Januøry22,20'12 HAY & PENNEY: PROPOSING CONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE noted that discussions about assessment were notoriously hampered by semantic differences in che defrnition of terms and their theoretical and practical employment. In this paper we define assessment as the collection and interpretation of information about students' learning in PE. This information and its consequences vary in scope and depth depending on the process used to collect the information and che purpose for that collection (Hay,2006). Our definition recognizes the multiple forms and foci of assessment, including such purposes and practices as formative and summative assessment. It also deliberately returns to rhe original conceptions of these terms as proposed by Bloom et aL (1971), wirh the emphasis therefore that the terms apply to the uses of the collected information rather than the rasks themselves. Hence, we are of the opinion that establishing assessment effrcacy necessitates che transcending of divisions in purpose, and that meaningful and considered assessment can achieve multiple purposes, a proposition previously attested to by Gipps (1996) and reaffirmed by Lingard et al. (2006). In proposing conditions of assessment efÊcacy in PE we contend that 'qualicy assessment' can only be understood and rcalized in relation to quality curriculum and pedagog¡ and the clear and enacted alignment of these three message systems. Our references to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment as message systems are cognizant of Tinning's (200Ð definitional concerns about curriculum and pedagogy and are thus drawn from Bernstein's (1971) quite explicit explanation of message systems as the means of selection, classifrcation, transmission and evaluation of educational knowledge. rüØe propose that quality assessment tasks should provide students with opportunicies co demonstrare rhe valued learnings defrned by the curriculum 'in' and 'about' movemenr, without compromising the benefrcial affective effects rcalized'through' movement. Furthermore, assessment should be supported b¡ and an informant to, pedagogies that provide students wirh the requisite skills and knowledges to complete the tasks (Lingard et aL.,2006) in relation to these dimensions. The conditions of assessment efficacy that we propose here are informed by this overarching condition of quality and, if enacted effectivel¡ may contribute to the consolidation of quality curriculum and pedagogy in PE. These conditions include: . a primaty focus on assessment for learning; . aurhentic assessment and thus, where possible, assessment that is 'integrated'; o assurance of validiry; . socially just approaches to assessment. Ir is important to nore thar we do not view these elements as hierarchical, but rather equally and conjointly signifrcant in the construction and enactment of assessment in PE. It is rhe interdeþendence of these elements, more so than their individual logic, that underpins the pursuit of assessment effrcacy. The conditions rhemselves are not new from eicher a broad education or PEspecifrc perspective. Their stipulation in relation to each other has, however, been a glaring omission from PE literature. In discussing each condition we draw, in part, upon the 'productive assessment' framework proposed by Hayes et aI. (2006). 39¡ Downloaded from epe sagepub.com at Charles Sturt LJn¡vers¡ly on Jan!ãry 22,2012 392 EUROPEAN PHYSTCAL EDUCATION REVIEW rs(3) Although noc specifically focused towards PE, the work of Hayes et al. serves as a useful reference point because ofthe concerted attention it affords learning in relation to assessment and because ir, too, recognizes the importance of aligning curriculum, pedagogy and assessment in the pursuit of productive student outcomes. Furthermore, rhe notions of intellectual rigour', 'connecredness', 'supportive classroom environmenr', and 'working with and valuing differences' that feature in the produccive assessmenr framework¡timuløte imporcant questions and discussions about the constitution of PE and the potential substance of its educative claims, Assessment for learning 'Ässessment for learning' (Black and rViliam , 1998), 'educative assessment', (Øiggins, 1998), and 'formative assessment' (Pryor and Crossouard, 2008) are terms that have variously been employed to distinguish assessmenc as having a learning focus. Although there are differences in the formaliry and extent of assessment deÊned by these terms, all reflect rhe fundamental interest in learning that in our view is a necessary focus for assessment in PE, including for tasks that may also generate information for more summative purposes such as grading and reporting (Gipps, 1996). In proposing rhis view of assessment and its relationship to purposes other than studenr learning we are not unaware of their influence in schools or their potential impact on students as mechanisms for sorcing and selection (see e.g. F{ay and Macdonald, 2008; Penney and Ha¡ 2008). Rather, it is because of the well reported problematic outcomes of privileging grading and reporting in the classroom context (e.g. Hay and Macdonald, 2008; Redelius et al., 2009; Tholin, 2006) that we are promoting an engagement with assessment where teachers make a deliberate and explicit effort to promote assessment for learning and teach their students how to 'read' assessment information in like manner. Øhile a grading-free PE is perhaps desirable, it is highly unlikely for the systemic imperatives we have already described. Øe propose rhen that it is necessary to both explicitly privilege the learning focus of assessmenr and work to limit the potential problematic consequences of grading and reporting through rhe assurance of construct validity and an associated tangible commirment to socially just assessment. Øe will say more on these elements in later sections of the paper. Assessmenr for learning is fundamentally grounded in constructivist theories of learning (Shepard, 2000). The constructivist theory recognizes that learning occurs as a result of interactions between learners and within contexts, and that students actively appropriate and adapt new knowledge in relation to former understandings and cognitive srructures, Such an approach recognizes that learning is not a passive process of knowledge transmission. Rather, it is a complex process dependent upon studenrs' previous knowledge, the mode of learning (e.g. kinaesthetic, visual, auditory), the context and the task. Assessment that has a learning focus provides information for teachers on the progress of their students' learning so that appropriate adjustments in curriculum and pedagogy can be made to optimize future learning. Moreover, the information generated by assessment should also be utilized by DoMloaded from epe sagepub.com at charles Sturt Un¡versily on January 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PROPOSING CONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE students to monitor and adequately plan for their own learning, a process requiring srudents' access ro the information and their understanding of what to do with the information (Sadler, 1998). For example, in the movement performance domain of PE, students should have ready access to the evidence of and associated feedback on their performances. Such evidence might include video excerpts of their performances and spoken or written feedback. Students should also be provided with performance exemplars (rhrough criteria sheets or video excerpts) to provide a reference point for their own reflections and learning adaptations. .A,ssessment for learning is not merely concerned with the contribution of assessment to the learning process. It is also concerned with the nalilre of learning being promoted and achieved. Here we consider the 'productive assessment' element of 'intellectual rigour' (Hayes et aI.,2006) to focus onwhar learning (content and process) could be undertaken in PE and addressed in assessment design and enactment. The pursuit of intellectual rigour in assessment involves the construction of assessment tasks and conrexts that promote high-quality academic outcomes based on higher order thinking, the consideration ofalternative solutions or knowledges, the construction of knowledge, rhe articulation of and engagement with discipline knowledge in a sufÊcienr depth (in relation to content and process), and the communication of this knowledge in multiple modes, including the physical. In most other curriculum domains, rhe absence of intellecrual rigour precipitates questions of quality and the subjecc's contribution ro the education of children (Lingard er aL.,2006). In our view, it is timely for the PE community to consider whether this educational construct is worthwhile pursuing, and if so, to then articulate how it may be developed in the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment of PE. The promotion of intellectual rigour as we view it is not a synonym for the scientizatio¡ of PE subject marrer (rùØhitson and Macintosh, 1990), nor a justification for more performance oriented iterations of PE. Rather, it represents an interest in the porenrial learning demands that are made of the students irrespective of the source or narure ofthe conrent. A broadening ofthe domain specifrcations ofPE beyond the performance of physical activiries co include the study of biophysical, sociocultural and health oriented conceprs would allow for the promotion of intellectual rigour in PE. Obviously rhis could be achieved through the direct study of these subdisciplines' Flowever, we advocate for a more integrated approach in which the learning of the subdiscipline contenr occurs through its application in the movement context and to the movement context. In this way the importance of physical activity is not diminished, but rather viewed as a context for learning beyond the psychomotor domain. 7e frnd that Arnoldt (1935) seminal work articulating dimensions of movemenr continues to be useful in situaring physical activity as a site for learning and assessmenr, and promoting integrated thinking about content and contexts of learning in PE. ,{rnold's dimensions of movement prompt more concerred attention to the possible depth and quality of learning and assessment in PE. Arnold articulated three dimensions of movement - 'in', 'through' and 'about'. He described the dimension of in' as the knowledges and skìlls acquired to Participate in the specific acriviry conrext itself, The dimension 'about' encompasses 'the 393 Oownloaded from epe sagepub.com al Charles Sturt Universily or January 22'2012 394 EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW I5(3) rational study of movement'(1985: 52) in which students develop knowledge and understanding of movement concepts. The frnal dimension, 'through', represents the use of movement as a context to promote the aesthetic appreciation of performance, moral and social responsibility, and dispositions to physical activity. These three dimensions provide a rationale for multiple foci and modes of assessmenr, as reflected in, for example, the Queensland Senior PE syllabus, where ceachers are required to provide learning experiences and assessmenc tasks 'that allow studenËs not only to undersrand the relationships between physical activity and the complexity of factors underlying performance, but also to experience such relationships themselves (that is, rhe close inregration oflearning experiences in, about and chrough physical activity)' (Queensland Studies,tuthorit¡ 2004: 2). Øithin an integrated approach to assessment in PE, tasks would thus require students to develop and utilize their understanding of a particular concept such as biomechanics or health promotion to improve their own performance or participation (or that of another person) in a focus physical activity. Such incegrated applications demand higher order cognitive processes such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom, I956) and knowledge utilization, metacognition and self-system thinking across learning domains (Marzano,2001), thereby optimizing the cognitive demands and expectations of learning in PE. In the next section, focusing on the closely aligned notion of authenticity, we provide an example of assessment that encompasses a focus on integrated learning in authentic contexts. Authentic and integrated assessment Authentic assessment has been promoted for some time as means of countering the educational limitations of traditional tests. Other terms such as 'performance-based assessment' have been used, particularly in the USA (Lund and Tannehill, 2005), to describe mo¡e meaningful approaches to assessment. tù7e prefer, however, the term 'authentic' because of its international history and development, and its conceptual breadth, allowing for more overr opportunities to develop integration possibilities in PE assessment. Äuthenticity in assessment is conce¡ned with the relationships between learning conrent and contexts and their connection with the world beyond rhe classroom. Such tasks acknowledge that solutions to real-world challenges will rarely come from a single discipline. Yet the notion of authenticity also goes beyond a multidisciplinary approach. fn summarizing the original and key elements of authentic assessment (or as it was originally referred to, 'authentic achievement'), Cumming and Maxwell (1999: 179) explained that each assessment 'should involve constructive learning, disciplined enquiry, and higher-order thinking and problemsolving. It should also have a value dimension, of aesthetic development, personal development or usefulness in the wider world.' Recognizing that student learning and quality performances depend, in part, upon students' motivation, and that this motivation can be affected by the assessment contexts provided (Cumming and Maxwell, 7999), authentic assessment pursues tasks and foci thac are meaningful to Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charles Sturt Un¡vereiW on Janvary 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PRoPoslNG CoNDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE students and that have value and meaning beyond the instructional context. This pursuit, in addition to the expectations of students to 'communicate their knowledge, present a product or performance, or take some action for an audience beyond the teacher, classroom or school building' (Hayes et al., 2006: 98) are elements of authentic assessment that Hayes et al. (2006) have referred to as 'connectedness'. The imporrance of authentic assessment has previously been advocated in PE (e.g. Melograno,I))4; Mohnsen, 1997; Smith,1997; Smith and Cestaro, 1998) and has been justiÊed in ¡elation to the employment of contextual and games-based curriculum approaches to PE such as Teaching Games for Understanding (Oslin, 2003; Oslin er al,, 1998) and sport education (Siedentop et aL., 2004). Veal (I992a) asserted that the 'role of authentic assessment in creating real physicøl edacation is to help students learn by providin g a formal feedback loop that results in instructional strategies and achievement of skill and attitudinal goals' (p, 89; our emphasis)' Ahhough acknowledging che connection to student learning, Veal's deÊnition is somewhar limited in its lack of reference to 'connectedness' consistently attended to in other defrnitions. Orher descriptions of authentic assessment in PE have been similarly lacking in explicit connecrions with contexts and audiences beyond the movement context. Sport education provides, to some extent, an exceprion co this observation, given the explicit interest in the successful completion of tasks 'in a context that is relevanr to how the task is done in the larger world' (Siedentop et al., 2OO4: 718). Nevertheless, we suggest that other more broad and sophisticated learning outcomes are possible, Consistenr with the broadening of rhe PE curriculum domain that we proposed in relation to assessment for lea¡ning, we agree with Thorburn (2007: 27 I) of the 'need to ensure that the learning aims associated with inregrated learning are authentic rarher than contrived and do genuinely contribute towards the achievement of high levels of artainment'. Furthermore, the deÊnition of authentic experiences in PE should capture the possibilities for integrated learning. Such a defrnition was offered by Hay (2006:317) who proposed that: , . . aurhenric assessment in PE should be based in movement and capture the cognitive and psychomoror processes involved in the competent performance of physical activities. Furthermore, assessment should redress the mind/body dualism propagated by traditional approaches to assessment, curriculum and pedagogies in PE, through tasks that acknowledge and bring to the fore the interrelatedness of knowledge, process (cognitive and motor), skills and the affective domain. This perspective aligns with ou¡ claims rcgarding the potential broadening of learning foci through assessment in PE, and the need for assessment to promote learning thar is intellectually rigorous, and integrated. Yet Hay's proposition also falls short of mainsrream understandings of authenticity because of its lack of refe¡ence to rhe connectedness of the rask with potential experiences and audiences beyond the school conrexr. To this end, we propose that authentic assessment in PE should be 395 Domloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charies Sturl Un¡versify ot Janvary 22,2012 39ó EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW ls(3) based in movemenr and include che integration of movement-associaced concepts in and ro movement contexts in modes reflective of their appropriation beyond the classroom, Integrated tasks, for example, may be framed in relation to coaching, sports management, or public health interventions. Clearly the possible integrations are numerous and could serve multiple agendas while maintaining an initiative towards the educative rigour of the subject. Senior PE, a'high-stakes'subject offe¡ed in the Australian state of Queensland, is an example of an iteration of PE that has pursued a broader perspective on the nature and educative substance of PE (Macdonald and Brooker, 1997a,19976)' This elective subjecr has been successfully delivered in Queensland schools since 1998 such that Senio¡ PE has the fourth highest student enrolment of any subject in Queensland, Senio¡ PE closely reflects the learning and authenticity conditions proposed in this secrion (Macdonald and Brooker,1997a),and provides an example of the way in which movement concepts (such as motof control, exercise physiology or sport sociolog¡ etc.) can be meaningfully engaged with 'in' and 'about' physical activity. A unit, for example, could involve the study of the psychology of golf (with psychology serving as rhe concept focus and golf the physical activity focus). The assessment within this unir would require the teacher's judgements of the s¡udents' capacities to acquire, apply and evaluare skills and strategies in golf. The second assessmen¡ element of the unit may involve an assignment in which students investigate the effects of arousal on rheir own golf performance, including the application and evaluation of their use of strategies ro optimize cheir arousal levels and thus performance in golf. In this task, students learn the movement concepts in the authentic context of golf, satisfring the learning and authenticity condicions we have proposed. Although the high-scakes situation of Senior PE demands levels of content sophistication that would be above and beyond PE in earlier phases of learning, it demonstrates that integrarion is possible and that orher more simple concepts such as 'simple physiological responses to exercise' or 'promoting positive relationships' could be conceivably engaged with in physical activities by students in earlier phases of leatning. Valid assessment Validity could well serve as an overarching condition of assessment in PE in the same manner as the necessity for a concerted alignment of the three message systems of education. That is, unless the proposed assessment is valid (and by implication, reliable) its usefulness as a means of information collection and as an informant to both ongoing learning and reporting is questionable. Nevertheless, we addtess this efficacy condition ar this point, recognizing that the substantiation ofvalidity requires the definition of the domain construcr (learning content and processes of a curriculum), and is necessarily instantiared in the construction and enactment of particular tasks. In our opinion, validiry has not been sufficiently aftended to in PE assessment. In part this is due to historically shallow or menial assessment and reporting foci DoMloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charies Sturt Univereify on January 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PROPOSING CONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE (Siedentop et aL.,2004). It is also the consequence of narrow domain de6nitions and chus validity applications. For example, while validity has been the focus of some research endeavou¡s (Nadeau et al., 2008; Oslin et a1.,1998), the focus is generally either on score validation rather than more encompassing and integrated notions of validity (Messick, 1995), or addresses the validity of assessment in relation to a narrowly deûned domain consrrucr. In fact, the question of what might constitate construcr validity in PE assessment has been broached in but very few substancial research pieces (see e.g. Hay and Macdonald, 2008). The international change in assessment focus from traditional style tests to authentic tasks, which we advocate for in chis paper, has aligned with a change in conceprions of validity from measurement-oriented or psychometric approaches based on score theory to an emphasis on 'the appropriateness of assessment tasks as indicarors of inrended learning outcomes, and on the appropriateness of the interpretation of assessment outcomes as indicators of learning' (Cumming and Maxwell, 1999: 177). Funhermore, some have described authentic assessment, itself, as an intention towards broader notions of 'ecological validity' (Kirk and O'Flahert¡ 2004; liggins, 1998).In a sraremenr rhar encompassed traditional psychometric notions of validity as well as rhese alternarive perspectives, Messick explained that 'validicy is an integrated evaluative judgement of the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rarionales suppoft the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences anà actions based on test scores of othef modes of assessment' (1989: 13; our emphasis). In other words, what need to be valid are rhe information collected, the interpretation of the scores, and the implications and consequences for action that such meaning entails. Validit¡ therefore, is a principle ¡elevant to øny process or practice of observing or documenting behaviours or attributes (Kane, 2001) and is thus an important consideration for assessment in PE. Messick (I99Ð argued that the validation of any assessment task should incorporate six aspects of consrruct validity: content, substantive, structural, generaliz' abilit¡ exrernal, and consequential. These elements refer to complementary forms of evidence thar are integrated to produce an overall judgement ofconstruct validity. In relation to authentic or performance-oriented (Messick, 1994) PE assessment we summarize that, when planning for assessment, attention be given to: the content relevance and representativeness of the planned tasks to the PE domain content (conrent); a cleat alignment ofstudent response processes and content and the processes and content characteristic of the subject domain (substantiue); the development of scoring or grading approaches (e,g. criteria and standards) that are reflective of task and domain structure (structural); the recognition of and response to facrors such as time, context and assessors that may affect the generalizability of the information and particularly the reliability of assessment evidence and judgements; 397 Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charies Sturt Universily on January 22,2012 398 EUROpEAN pHYStCAL EDUCATION REVIEW l5(3) convergenr and discriminate correlations of the assessment scores with orher sources of capability evidence and the utility of the scores for applied purposes such as learning and/or accountability (externaf; and an investigation of the positive and negative, intended and unintended conseqnences of the task and its outcomes for PE scudents (consequentia[). In attending to Messick's (1995) six elements, we reassert chat a careful consideration and then articulacion of the domain boundaries and curriculum detail of PE, including the attributed knowledge, skills, processes and integrations, should underpin considerarions of construct validity in PE assessment. These domain specifrcations serve as a guide for the content of the tasks as well as the types of tasks or contexts that should be included in an assessment programme. Accordingly, PE teachers developing ¿rssessment tasks and defrning assessment contexts need to ensure that the rasks and contexts, over a specified period, arc reþrerentøtiue of and demand the dernonsTrøtion by the students of these knowledges, skills, processes and integrations. Furrhermore, rhe tasks should generare defensible evidence on which to base judgemenrs of performance, and teachers should ensure that this evidence is readily accessible and understandable for students. Øe believe that teachers should consider the permissibility of performance evidence generated from beyond a specifred task (such as coaching, training or performing in community settings for example) to corroborate the evidence collecced through the task. Actention should also be given to the processes by which performance evidence is referenced against criteria in the derermination of students' grades ro ensure that they are reliable, reflective of the task demands, and free from construct irrelevant factors such as students' dispositional and behavioural characteristics. Socially just approaches to assessment This fourrh condition of assessment effrcacy is concerned with the opportunities ø// students are given to engage in assessment, receive attention and recognition for demonstrations of performance, and learn as a consequence of their engagement in assessment. This could be best summarized as an intention towards 'inclusion' (Forlin, 2OO4) and, more broadly, 'social justice' (Lingard, 200Ð. Øhile Lingard (2005) asserrs that the provision of quality assessment opportunities supported by quality curriculum and pedagogy is in and of itself a social justice issue, Hayes et aI. (2006) suggesr that the pursuit of socially just assessment requires a supportive classroom environment and the working with and valuing of sudent differences. In planning assessmenr for a unit of work in PE, teachers should be considerate of the learning needs of their students and the importance of providing multiple fesponse opportunities through avariety of assessment modes. Øe argue that an inclusive, socially just approach to assessment in PE requires that all students are awarre of how to engage in an assessment context or with an assessment task at the level valued by the assessors. This necessitates the provision of Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charles Sturl Universify on January 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PROPOSING CONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE adequate task scaffolding or instructional cues (Hayes et al., 2006) through communicacive modes that are nor socially or culrurally exclusive, Moreover, students need to be let in on the secret of teachers' grading decisions through access to explicit and understandable criteria for the judging of quality performances (Hay and Macdonald, 2008; Sadle r, 7998). Beyond social jusrice, these initiatives reflect a primary focus on assessment for learning rarher than accountability-associated sorcing and selecting purposes, and a shift away from what Bernsrein (1996) described as performance modes - approaches to rhe education of students that are predicated on'different from' relations (what sets students apaft) and the establishment of hierarchical student distinctions. This does not mean that the generation of indicators of achievement quality (i.e. grades) is foregone, but rather thar the teachers' interest is Êrst on the learning and achievement of all students rather than the qualitative or quantitative distinctions between them. In addition ro supportive conditions for discrete tasks, inclusion and social justice in assessment requires rhar students be given multiple opportunities, in varying conrexts, to display and receive recognition for the valued attributes of the domain construcr. That is, decisions concerning students' learning in a unit of work should be based on rhe collecrion of information ovet a period of time and through mulriple modes of assessment rather than as discrete or point-in-time exercises. Furthermore, students should have ready access to this evidence to increase their engagement in' and accountability for, the learning process. Notably, the provision of these opPortunities is not only a social justice issue, it is an important factor in the negotiation of construct-irrelevant variance in students' assessment responses (Øiliam and Black, 1996).'Point in rime' and narrowly defined assessment moments do not adequately accounr for the variety of properties to a response at a particular point in time. These properties may include language (and other cultural codes), the context of the required response, the student's emotional and physical state at the time of assessmenr, etc. tViliam and Black explain chat the aim of ongoing and multiple modes of assessment is to 'average out all those effects which are not desired and so enhance the signal to noise ratio for the effect [or learning attributeJ of interest' (1996: 53Ð' Messick's (1995) 6nal element of construct validity (consequences as validity evidence) draws atrenrion to the imporrance of taking into accoun t the ffict of assessmenr and its outcomes on students, and is thus also a consideration in relation to the promotion of social justice and, ultima rcly, efficacy in assessment. For example, if the inrenrion of rhe task is for learning, it is necessary to establish what inrended and unintended learning has occurred (Messick, 1995) and the aspects of the assessment approach employed that may have led to any unintended learnings. The key interest here is the negative consequences of assessment such as a student's diminished sense of capacity in the PE freld and their disconnect with physical culture in and beyond rhe classroom, as well as the learning of undesirable ideologies such as elitism, sexism, racism, erc. (Tinnin g, I99O). If assessment in PE contribures ro negative and unintended learnings such as these, then its construction and employment in the subject musr be rigorously reviewed. All too often in mainstream education differences in 399 Downloaded from epe sagepub,com at Charles Sturt Un¡versiTy oî Jaîuary 22' 2012 400 EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW l5(3) students' achievements are attributed to the meritocratic claims of student ability and effort rather than problems with the measures used to generate the achievement (Benjamin, 2003; Harc, 1998).lùØe believe that the PE community should be wary of this tendency and give due care and attention to socially just assessment pracrices. Goncluslon The purpose of this paper has been to challenge the internacional PE community to comprehensively consider assessment practices in PE. In particular we have drawn on theoretical and ¡esearch-based principles of assessment to propose four inrerdependent conditions of assessment effrcacy that reside within a concerted alignment of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment, Underpinning our assertions has been an argument for a broadening of the potential domain characteristics of PE to allow the subject to better optimize its educarive substance as well as the unique learning conrexr rhat ic can provide. Central to the integrity ofour efÊcacy proposal is the codependence of the four conditions. It is not sufficient, for example, to enrich and b¡oaden the learning foci of PE assessment tasks if the tasks or method of generating grades are invalid. Moreover, if assessment outcomes are consumed by students in such a way as to highlight their limitations rather than promote their future learning and engagement in a movement culture, irrespective of the authenticity of the assessmenr, its effects are undesirable. Beyond the policy and practice implications of ¡hese co-dependent conditions, we suggest that research into assessment practices in PE should likewise assume a more integrated approach. Admittedl¡ the conditions are ambitious, particularly given a history of at times trivial assessmenr in the subject (Siedentop et al., 2004) but are nevertheless possible, Internarional sysremic variation in the constitution of PE domains means that the provision of assessment exemplars is difficult. 'We have provided some examples of assessment that meet the proposed conditions from the Queensland context and encourage international readers to consider the logic and applicability of the conditions to rheir own cur¡icular contexts. In so doing a concerted and directed dialogue can be established to consolidate and support effective practices and discuss possibilities for assessment reform whe¡e needed. Thus, we welcome further discussion, debate and crìtique to sharpen the understanding and practice of assessment in the PE communit¡ and to optimize the educational rationale for the subject. Such discussions need to be underpinned by targeted, concerted and cohesive research approaches ro assessment in PE and a broadening of our pe¡spectives on the educacive possibilities for PE. Acknowledgement I7e would like to thank rhe reviewers of this paper for rheir helpful reflections and suggestions for strengrhening the paper, and for engaging with our work in a spirit of collegial discussion, debate and critique. Downloaded from epe sagepub.com al Châdes Sturt Un¡versify on January 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PROPOSING CONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE References Arnold, P. (1985) 'Movement, Physical Education and the Curriculum', Balletin of Pbysical Education 16(l):5-9. Ball, S. (2003) 'The Teacher's Soul and the Terrors of Performativiry',Journal of Edacation Policy r8(2): 215-28. 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Résumé Les conditions de I'efficacité de l'évaluation en éducation physique Contribuant aux débats pour une meilleure compréhension des pratiques, des politiques et des recherches sur l'évaluation en Education Physique (EP), cet article décrit et discute quatre conditions d'effìcacité de l'évaluation pour le développement et la promotion d'une évaluation formative en EP Ces conditions sont sous-tendues à la proposition selon laquelle une EP de qualité tient à une conception concertée des programmes, des pratiques pédagogies et de l'évaluation, et à I'intégration de l'évaluation parmi les principaux facteurs de I'apprentissage; à I'assurance de la validité de son élaboration; et à une approche socialement juste de l'évaluation. Ces conditions elles-mêmes ne sont Pas nouvelles, cependant leur prise en compte a été, par le passé, largement occultée par la littérature spécifìque à I'EP De manière sous-jacente à ces propositions, nous lançons un appel à une meilleure prise en compte de l'évaluation dans la conception des programmes d'EP et à une conception de I'EP comme un lieu au service d'apprentissages dans des domaines multiPles au-delà de sa reconnaissance comme un objet même d'apprentissage, 403 DoMloaded from epe.sagepub com at charles Sturl Un¡versily on January 22,20'12 404 EUROpEAN pHYStCAL EDUCATION REVIEW ls(3) Resumen Propuesta de condiciones para la eficacia de la evaluación en educación física Al abogar por una pníctica, una polrtica y unas consideraciones de la evaluación de la invefigación en educación física (PE) más amplias, este documento presenta y discute cuatro condiciones integradas de efìcacia de la evaluación para el desarrollo y la promoción de una evaluación productiva en E,F, Estas condiciones están precedidas por la premisa de que la educación física de calidad requiere de la confluencia acordada y consensuada del currículo, la pedagogía y la evaluación, y la inclusión de un foco primario en la evaluación para el aprendizaje; una evaluación auténtica e integrada, la garantía de la validez de constructo; y socialmente meras aproximaciones a la evaluación. Las condiciones de por sí no son nuevas, sin embargo su integración ha sufrido una omisión notable de la literatura sobre Educación Física en el pasado, De manera implícita, con estas condiciones se reclama una ampliación del contenido del currículo de educación física y un empleo de la actividad física como contexto para el aprendizaje de varios dominios, además de su reconocimiento como un foco de aprendizaje, Zussamenfassung Vorschläge für wirksame Beurteilungsbedingungen im Sportunterricht Der vorliegende Artikel veranschaulicht und diskutiert vier integrative Voraussetzungen für die Wirkamkeit von Beurteilung im Zusammenhang mit der Entwicklung und Förderung produktiver Bewertung im Sportunterricht, Dabei wird für nachvollziehbarere Überlegungen für eine Praxis, Politik und Forschung von Beurteilung im Sportunterricht argumentiert. Die Voraussetzungen werden eingeführt mit der Absicht das qualitativ hochwertiger Sportunterricht einen ausgewogenen und wohlüberlegten Abgleich von Curriculum, Pädadgogik und Beurteilung braucht und folgende Aspekte integrieren sollte: die Beruckichtigung eines primären Augenmerk auf die Bewertung von Lernfortschritten, authentische und integrative Beurteilung, Sicherheit in der Aussagekraft der Bewertungskriterien, sowie sozial gerechte Bewertungsansätze. Diese Bedingungen ansich sind nicht neu, allerdings wurden sie in der Vergangenheit in Publikationen zum Sportunterricht deutlich vernachlässigt. lmplizit liegt diesen Bedingungen der Aufruf zugrunde, die Curriculumsinhalte von Sportunterricht zu erweitern und Sport und Bewegung als einen Ort mit multiplen Lernbereichen in Ergänzung zu seiner Wahrnehmung als eigenes Lernfeld anzuerkennen. Peter Hay is a Lecturer in the School of Human Movement Studies at the University of Queensland. His research focuses on assessment policy and practice in Health and Physical Education and the construction of students' abilities in learning contexts. DoMloaded from epe.sagepub.com at Charles Sturt Universily on Janvary 22,2012 HAY & PENNEY: PRoPoslNG cONDITIONS FOR ASSESSMENT EFFICACY lN PE Dawn Penney is Associate Professor and Associate Dean (Research) in the Faculty of Education, Universiry of Tasmania. Dawn has researched and published prolifìcally in the fìelds of physical education policy and curriculum. Address for correspondence: Dr Peter Ha¡ School of Human Movement Studies,