• Stephen Toulmin: Bri1sh philosopher, author, and educator • His model “describe[s] the way that ordinary people make reasonable arguments” (p. 143). • Qualifica1on is key to this model.
• Examples – using words like some1mes, oLen, presumably, unless, in some cases, almost, etc. allow us to QUALIFY our arguments • Qualifica1ons give us alterna1ves to absolute truths, which is beneficial in argumenta1on.
• Helps writers come up with, test and organize arguments.
Toulmin Structure
• Claim = argument you wish to prove • Grounds/Reasons/Evidence = support for your claim • Warrants = underlying assump1ons that support your claim; the connec1on between claims/evidence • Backing/Commentary = evidence for warrant – aLer argument has been outlined • Qualifiers = any limits to your claim/fallacies • Rebu]als = an1cipated objec1ons to your argument you and/or others may make; the other side of the argument
Toulmin (con7nued)
• Making Claims • Debatable, controversial statements, and/or asser1ons you hope to prove. • Claims are “mini arguments” that support your larger argument. • You cannot iden1fy or make claims without 1st knowing what the larger argument is. • Claims answer the ques1ons, “so what?” or “where do you stand on this issue?” • Any claim worth wri1ng about is worth owning.
• Example – In our hypothe1cal marijuana paper, the larger argument is: we should legalize marijuana. The claims that support that are: there are health benefits, there are economic benefits, and there are social benefits to legalizing marijuana.
Toulmin (con7nued)
• Grounds/Reasons/Evidence • Support for your claims. • Put grounds/reasons/evidence and claims together early in your wri1ng process. • Make a preliminary list of what you already know, and add research as needed. • Grounds/reasons/evidence are important because readers are certain to ques1on your claims…especially in a controversial argument.
• Example – Studies show that using marijuana helps reduce nausea levels and increase appe1te in cancer pa1ents, thereby improving pa1ents’ overall health. This proves we should legalize marijuana because there are health benefits.
Toulmin (con7nued)
• Determining Warrants • Warrants are the logical and persuasive connec1on between the claim and evidence. • Warrants do not come from outside research; instead, they come from YOUR BRAIN. • Warrants answer the ques1on “how do I get from the data to the claim?” • Warrants give the writer more authority on the topic and make claims seem believable.
• Example – because nutri1on is important to figh1ng disease, it is also important that cancer pa1ents eat properly (W). Studies show that using marijuana helps reduce nausea levels and increase appe1te in cancer pa1ents, thereby improving pa1ents’ overall health (G/R/E). This proves we should legalize marijuana because there are health benefits (C).